SURVEY THEORY

ENG D. NYAKERARIO
 LEVELLING
Levelling
• is the art of determining the elevation of given points above
or below a datum line
• establishing given points of required height above or below the
datum line.
• It evolves measurement in vertical plane.
 DEFINITION OF BASIC TERMS
USED IN LEVELLING:
• Level surface: Any surface parallel to the mean spheroid of the
earth is called level surface and the line drawn on level surface is
known as level line.
• Horizontal surface: Any surface tangential to level surface at a
given point is called - Horizontal surface at point. Hence
horizontal line is at right angles to plumb line.
• Vertical surface: It is the line connecting the point & center of
earth. Vertical & horizontal line is normal to each other.
• Datum: The point or the surface with respect to which levels of
other points or planes are calculated is called ‘datum or surface.
• Mean sea level (MSL): the average height of sea of all stages of
tides. Any particular place is derived by averaging over a long
period of 19 years. In India the mean sea level used is that at
Karachi (Pakistan). In all important survey this is taken as datum.
• Reduced level: Levels of various points are taken as heights
above the datum surface are known as Reduced level.
• Bench mark: Bench mark is a relatively permanent point of
reference whose Elevation w.r.t some assumed datum is known.
There are four types of bench mark
G.T.S (Great trigonometry survey)
Permanent bench mark
Arbitrary bench mark.
Temporary bench mark.
 G.T.S (Great trigonometry survey)
 Permanent bench mark- A permanent benchmark is a fixed and stable
reference point that is intended to remain in place for an extended period of time
e.g. found on concrete or metal and is securely attached to a permanent
structure like a building or a monument. are used as a reliable and long-term
reference for future surveys and measurements.
 Arbitrary bench mark- reference point established by surveyors for a specific
project or survey. It does not have a fixed physical location or any inherent
stability. Arbitrary benchmarks are often temporary and can be easily moved or
removed once the survey or project is completed.
 Temporary bench mark- a reference point that is set up for a short duration
during a survey or construction project. TBMs are usually simple and temporary
structures like wooden stakes or metal rods inserted into the ground.
 LEVELLING INSTRUMENTS
• A level - an instrument giving horizontal line of sight & magnifying
the reading far away from it.
• It consists of following 4 parts.
Telescope to provide line of sight.
Level tube to make the line of sight horizontal.
The levelling head to bring the bubble in its centre of run.
A tripod to support instrument
 TYPES OF LEVELS:
• Dumpy level
• wye level
• Cooke's ‘reversible level
• Tilting level
• Auto level
• Cushing's level
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF
AUTO & DUMPY LEVEL:
 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF
AUTO & DUMPY LEVEL:
1. Telescope
2. Eye piece
3. Shade
4. Objective end
5. Longitudinal bubble
6. Focusing screw
7. Foot screws
8. Upper parallel plate
9. Diaphragm adjusting screws
10. Bubble tube
11. Adjusting screw
12. Transverse bubble tube
13. Foot plate.
 LEVELLING STAFF:
• A levelling staff is a straight rectangular rod having graduations.
• The foot of the staff representing 0 reading.
• During levelling staff is held vertical at the point and from level
horizontal sight is taken.
• Levelling staff may be divided into 2 groups
 Self ‘ reading
 Target staff.
 PARTS OF TELESCOPE:
• Objectives
• Eye piece
• Diaphragm
• Focusing device
 FUNDAMENTAL AXIS OF A LEVEL:
• Vertical axis: It is the center line of axis of notation of the level.
• Axis of level ‘ tube: It is an imaginary line tangential to the
longitudinal curve of the tube at its middle point. It is horizontal
when the bubble is central.
• Axis of telescope: It is the line joining the optical center of the
object glass & the center of eye piece.
• Line of collimation or line of sight: It is the line joining the
intersection of cross hairs & optical center of the object glass.
 TEMPORARY STAFF ADJUSTMENT
OF A LEVEL:
• Setting up
• Levelling up
• Focusing
Setting up: It is to set the tripod stand to a convenient height by bringing
bubble to the center of run through the movement of tripod legs radially.
Levelling up: To make the vertical axis truly vertical the levelling is made
with the help of foot screws.
Loosen the clamp and turn the instrument until bubble axis is parallel to
line joining any two screws.
Turn the two screws inward or outward equally till bubble is centered.
Turn the telescope through 90 degrees so that it lies over the third screw.
• Focusing:
 For quantitative measurements it is essential that the image should
always be formed in the fixed plane in the telescope where the cross ‘
hairs are situated
 The operation of forming or bringing the clear image of the object in the
pane of cross hairs is known ‘ as ‘ focusing
 Complete focusing involves two steps
 Focusing the eye ‘ piece
 Focusing the objective
 TERMS USED IN LEVELLING:
• Station: point where levelling staff is held & not the point where
level is kept.
• Height of instrument: For any set up of the level the height of
instrument is the elevation of the plane of sight respect to assumed
datum. This also known as ‘ plane of collimation.
• Back sight: It is sight taken on a level staff held at a point of
known elevation with an intension of determining plane of
collimation or sight.
• Intermediate sight (I.S): Sight taken on after taking back sights
before taking last sight from an instrument station is known as ‘
intermediate sight. The sight is also known as +ve sight (add)
• Fore sight (F.S): This is the last reading ‘ taken from instrument just
before shifting the instrument.
• Change point (C.P): This is a point on which both fore sight & back
sight are taken.
• Reduced level: Reduced level of a point is the level of the point with
respect to assumed datum.
 TYPES OF LEVELLING
• Simple levelling
• Differential levelling
• Fly levelling
• Profile levelling
• Cross-sectioning
• Reciprocal levelling
• Simple levelling: It is the difference in levels of two near by points. It
is obtained by simple levelling
• Differential levelling: When the distance between two points is very
large it may not be possible to take the readings from single setting of
instruments. Each shifting facilitated by taking CP.
• Fly levelling: It is to carry out levelling with respect to temporary
bench mark in convenient direction taking number of CP
• Crossectioning: In many engineering projects to calculate earth work
involved not only LS is involved but CS of ground is taken in regular
intervals.
• Reciprocal levelling: When it is not possible to balance FS and BS due
to non-parallelism of line of collimation and axis of bubble tube and also
due curvature and refraction this is used.
H= [(ha- hb) + (h'a- h'b)]/2
PROFILE LEVELLING:
• This type of levelling is known as ‘ longitudinal section.
• The reduced levels of various points at regular intervals are found along a
line or a set of lines.
• Then the engineers draw the sectional view of the ground to get the
profile. This type of levelling is commonly employed in deciding railways,
highways, canal, sewage line routes.
• After getting reduced level of various points along the line, profile of the
ground is plotted on a drawing sheet.
• Then when the engineers decide the formation level of the proposed
project The decision is mainly based on balancing, cutting & filling so that
the transport of earth is minimum.
 STEPS TO TAKE
OBSERVATION:
• Instrument level is setup at convenient positions near first point (say A).
• Temporary adjustments should be done, (setting up, levelling up, elimination
of a parallax) are Performed.
• First sight of B.M (point of known elevation) is taken and reading is entered in
back Sight column.
• If distance is large instrument is shifted, the instrument becomes turning
point (or) changing point.
• After setting up instrument at new position, performing temporary
adjustment and Take back sight as turning point.
• Thus, turning point will have both back sight and fore sight readings.
• Link wise the process is repeated till last point (say B) is reached.
• Readings are entered in a tabular form is given Below and Reduced levels are
calculated either by height of instrument method (or) rise and fall method.
 HEIGHT OF INSTRUMENT METHOD
(HOI)/HEIGHT OF COLLIMATION(HOC)
STATION BACK INTERMED FORE HEIGHT REDUCED REMARKS
SIGHT EATE SIGHT OF LEVEL
(B.S) SIGHT (F.S) INSTRUME (R.L)
(I.S) NT (H.I)
 RISE AND FALL METHOD
SATIONS BACK INTERME FORE RISE FALL (- REDUCIN REMARK
SIGHT DEATE SIGHT (+VE) VE) G LEVEL S
(B.S) SIGHT (F.S) (R.L)
(I.S)
 ARITHMATIC CHECK
• Height of Instrument method/ height of collimation method
BS - FS = LAST RL –FIRST RL

• Rise and Fall method