MEASUREMENTS OF

PRECIPITATION
LECTURE 4
MEASUREMENTS OF PRECIPITATION

 It includes
I. Amount of precipitation
II. Duration of precipitation
III. Intensity of precipitation
IV. Areal extent of precipitation
MEASUREMENTS OF PRECIPITATION

1. AMOUNT OF PRECIPITATION
 Total depth of rain water (or Snow) assuming that there is no
evaporation, transpiration, surface water losses or infiltration
 Units of measurements : mm or in

2. DURATION OF PRECIPITATION
 Difference between start time and ending time of the rain storm
 Units of measurements: hours or minutes
MEASUREMENTS OF PRECIPITATION

3. INTENSITY OF PRECIPITATION
 Amount of precipitation per unit time at a place, also known as “Rain
Rate”
 Intensity depicts how fast or slow the rain storm is
 Units of measurements: mm/hour

4. AREAL EXTENT OF PRECIPITATION

 The area over which rainfall occurs
 Units of Measurements: miles2 or km2
MAIN APPROACHES TO MEASURE
RAINFALL
 Rain gauges Ground Measurements
 Using radars Atmospheric Measurements
 Satellite measurements Remote sensing

 Ground measurements being the accurate most as it is closest to

actual rain that falls on the adjacent ground
 That is why is the reliable most method of measurement
RAIN GAUGES

Types of rain gauges

 Non-recording type rain gauges
 Recording type rain gauges

Non-Recording Gauges
 Gives total amount of precipitation in the interval e.g., 24 hors for daily
observation
 Doesn’t provide continuous record
 Observer visits at prescribed time and measures rain e.g., 8 O’clock in the
morning for daily observation
 Examples : Standard Rain Gauge or US national weather bureau Rain
gauge
RAIN GAUGES

Recording type Rain gauges:

 They give continuous record of amount of precipitation for interval on a
graph paper attached called “Rain Chart”
 Examples: Tipping Bucket type Rain Gauge, Weighing type rain gauge,
float type rain gauge ,etc.
RAIN GAUGES
RAIN GAUGES

What information is obtained from rain chart?

 No. of Rain storms
 Amount of precipitation in each rain storm
 Duration of precipitation in each rain storm
 Intensity of precipitation
 Total daily amounts
 Observer visits the recording rain gauge after fixed intervals and
removes the older rain chart and replaces with a new one
STANDARD RAIN GAUGE/ US
NATIONAL WEATHER BUREAU RAIN
GAUGE
This is a non-recording type rain gauge
Main Components:
 Receiver/collector
 Funnel
 Measuring Cylinder
 Outer/overflowing Cylinder
 Measuring stick ( 24” long black laminated graduated stick)
 Frame/ support
STANDARD RAIN GAUGE/ US
NATIONAL WEATHER BUREAU RAIN
GAUGE
STANDARD RAIN GAUGE/ US
NATIONAL WEATHER BUREAU RAIN
GAUGE
Precipitation is received by collector
 Generally collector has diameter 5”-8”
 Through funnel then it moves to measuring cylinder
 Cross-sectional area of measuring cylinder is kept generally 1/10th of
the cross-sectional area of the collector
 This is done in order to magnify small readings
 Observer visits the gauge and takes reading using measuring stick
 Amount of Precipitation =
STANDARD RAIN GAUGE/ US
NATIONAL WEATHER BUREAU RAIN
GAUGE
Total height of the measuring cylinder 600mm
 If it rains more than 60mm water spills out into to outer cylinder or
overflowing cylinder
 Observer throws the measuring cylinder which gives the reading
when fully filled 600mm which is equivalent to 60mm of actual
precipitation
 Then pours the rain water from the overflowing cylinder into
measuring cylinder and takes reading of spilled water say “y” mm
 Amount of precipitation=
 Standard rain gauge can also be used to measure snow depth if
collector and measuring cylinder are removed
STANDARD RAIN GAUGE/ US
NATIONAL WEATHER BUREAU RAIN
GAUGE
STANDARD RAIN GAUGE/ US
NATIONAL WEATHER BUREAU RAIN
GAUGE
Insertion of the measuring stick is a source of error in precipitation
reading

d1 d2

Before After insertion

insertion of of stick
stick
STANDARD RAIN GAUGE/ US
NATIONAL WEATHER BUREAU RAIN
GAUGE
A: Cross sectional Area of measuring cylinder
 A: Cross Sectional area of stick
 d1:true depth of rain water
 d2:observed depth of rain water
 Volume of water remains same before and after measurement

(Vol)1 = (Vol)2
Ad1 = (A-a)d2 Correction Factor = <1
d1 = d2
RECORDING TYPE RAIN GAUGES

 They give continuous record of amount of precipitation for interval on a graph

paper attached called “Rain Chart”
 Following are the examples of recording rain gauges:
 Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge
 Weighing Bucket type Rain Gauge
 Float Type Rain Gauge
TIPPING BUCKET TYPE RAIN GAUGE

 Consists of two small buckets

 Placed below the funnel
 Funnel is fitted into a receiver
 Buckets are pivoted in an unbalance condition such that
only one bucket is remains below funnel
 One bucket is always higher than other
 Rain is received by the receiver or collector
 After a certain small amount of rain water (0.25mm) is
received by the bucket below funnel
 It becomes unstable and tips to empty itself into
measuring tube
 At the same time lifts the other bucket under the funnel
TIPPING BUCKET TYPE RAIN GAUGE

 At the same time lifts the other bucket under the

funnel and starts collecting water in it
 Tipping of the bucket actuates an electric circuits
 This current signal causes the pen to make a
mark on chart wrapped around a rotating drum
revolved by clock driven mechanism
 Each mark on the chart corresponds to 0.25mm
 By counting number of marks and noting the
time amount and intensity of rain can be
determined
 Verification may be done by water gathered in
the measuring tube
TIPPING BUCKET TYPE RAIN GAUGE
WEIGHING BUCKET TYPE RAIN
GAUGE
 Rain is collected by receiver and transferred
to a weighing bucket through a funnel
 Bucket rests on a weighing platform
 As bucket starts filling with water its weight
increases and platform moves downwards
 The movement of the platform is transmitted
to a pen
 Pen makes a trace of accumulated rainfall on
a chart attached to a barrel revolved by
clock driven mechanism
 The record is continuous in form of
conventional mass curve
WEIGHING BUCKET TYPE RAIN
GAUGE
WEIGHING BUCKET TYPE RAIN
GAUGE
 The gauge must be serviced about once a week
 Clock is re-wound and the chart is replaced
 For high rainfall in a few gauges recording mechanism is reverses the
direction of record immediately on reaching the upper edge of the
recording chart
FLOAT TYPE RAIN GAUGE
 Rain is received by a collector or receiver and sent
into a float chamber through a funnel
 Float chamber contains a float with a vertical stem
fixed in position
 A pen is mounted on the vertical stem and the pen
moves on a chart attached to a drum revolving by
clock driven mechanism
 The pen marks a trace of cumulative depth of
rainfall
 Record is in the form of a rain chart
 When the float chamber fills to the design level a
syphon activates and empties the float chamber
 This is also known as siphon gauge
SNOWFALL MEASUREMENTS

 It may be measured in two ways:

1. Amount of snowfall
2. Equivalent amount of water
 Equipment used:
1. Standard rain gauge without measuring cylinder
2. Weighing bucket type rain gauge
3. Snow gauge
4. By scratching snow pack
MEASURING EQUIVALENT AMOUNT
OF WATER
 This can be done in three ways:
1. By heating the cylinder
2. By weighing the cylinder
3. By adding known amount of hot water
 By Heating the cylinder:
 This approach is objectionable because some amount may evaporate
 Measured equivalent amount of water will be less
 By Weighing the cylinder:
W1= weight of cylinder + Weight of snow
W2= weight of cylinder
W= W1 – W2
MEASURING EQUIVALENT AMOUNT
OF WATER
Using weight-volume relation
γ= =
he =
 By adding known amount of water:
 Known amount of hot water is added into the snow gauge
 It melts the snow
 Height after the snow melts completely is determined using some
graduated measuring cylinder
h1= total height of water
h2= known amount of hot water
he= h1-h2 = equivalent water
SITE SELECTION FOR A RAIN GAUGE

 Following points should be considered for installation of a rain gauge at any

site:
1. There should ne a level ground of 50-100m diameter around the gauge
2. Sharp sloping sides of hills should be avoided
3. There should be no obstruction in all directions for 1:4 slope. Buildings and
trees within the range act as wind shelter.
4. There should be proper wind shelter to avoid disturbances of rain showers.
For hilly areas a valley having slope less than or equal to 1:4 slope is
recommended. As this topography provides natural wind shelter.
5. Adjoining ground should be covered with short grass to avoid addition of
splashes
6. Height of the rain gauge should also be sufficient enough to avoid splashing
ERRORS IN PRECIPITATION
MEASUREMENT BY RAIN GAUGES
1. Insertion of measuring stick: measured amount will be more than
actual. Error is roughly 1%.
2. Dents in collector or receiver: measuring area reduces and measures
less than actual
3. Dents in Measuring Cylinder: measured amount is more than actual
4. Initial wetting: about 0.25mm of rain water is utilized to initially wet
the surfaces of rain gauges
5. Rain drop splashes:
1. Rain drop splashes strike ground surface and enter into the collector. Grass
can damp this effect. Measured amount is more than actual
2. Splash may occur from rain gauge to the ground. A collar may be placed
on the collector to reduce this. Measured amount is lesser than actual
ERRORS IN PRECIPITATION
MEASUREMENT BY RAIN GAUGES
6. Vertical updraft of wind: reduces catch due to upward currents and
acceleration of the precipitation drops. This deficiency is significant for
small rain drops than the larger drops. That is why it affects the
measurements of lighter rain more than for heavy rain.
7. Non-Verticality of rain gauge: catch area varies
8. Frictional effect: this is for recording gauges. For example if there is
friction on pivot of tipping bucket will disrupt the movement of buckets
and hence will cause errors in measurements
9. Leakage of cylinders: loss in amount of water gathered results in lesser
than actual measurements.
10. By evaporation: in some cases evaporation may reduce the amount of
gathered water. This might be overcome by putting a thin layer of some
oil in gauge which will reduce evaporation.
THANK YOU ANY
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