GEOMETRIC DESIGN

OF HIGHWAY
IMPORTANCE OF GEOMETRIC DESIGN
 The geometric design of a highway deals with the dimensions and

layout of visible features of the highway such as alignment, sight

distance and intersection.

 The main objective of highway design is to provide optimum

efficiency in traffic operation with maximum safety at reasonable

cost.

Geometric design of highways deals with following elements :

 Cross section elements

 Sight distance considerations

 Horizontal alignment details

 Vertical alignment details

 Intersection elements
DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA

 Design speed

 Topography

 Traffic factors

 Design hourly volume and capacity

 Environmental and other factors

 DESIGN SPEED

 In India different speed standards have been assigned for

different class of road

 Design speed may be modified depending upon the terrain

conditions.
TOPOGRAPHY

Classified based on the general slope of the country.

 Plane terrain <10%

 Rolling terrain 10-25%

 Mountainous terrain 25-60%

 Steep terrain >60%

TRAFFIC FACTORS
 Vehicular characteristics and human characteristics of road

users.

 Different vehicle classes have different speed and

acceleration characteristics, different dimensions and

weight .

 Human factor includes the physical, mental and

psychological characteristics of driver and pedestrian.

DESIGN HOURLY VOLUME AND CAPACITY
 Traffic flow fluctuating with time

 Low value during off-peak hours to the highest value during

the peak hour.

 It is uneconomical to design the roadway for peak traffic

flow.
DESIGN HOURLY VOLUME AND CAPACITY
ENVIRONMENTAL AND OTHER FACTORS

 Aesthetics

 Landscaping

 Air pollution

 Noise pollution
PAVEMENT SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS
Pavementsurfacedependonthetypeofpavementwhichisdecidedbasedonth
e,
 Availability of material
 Volume and composition of traffic
 Soil subgrade
 Climatic condition
 Construction facility
 Cost consideration

The important surface characteristics are:

 Friction
 Pavement unevenness
 Light reflecting characteristics
FRICTION

 Skidding: when the path travelled along the road surface is

more than the circumferential movement of the wheels due
to their rotation.
 Slipping: when a wheel revolves more than the
corresponding longitudinal movement along the road.
FRICTION
Factors affecting the friction or skid resistance
 Types of pavement surface
 Roughness of pavement
 Condition of the pavement: wet or dry
 Type and condition of tyre
 Speed of the vehicle
 Brake efficiency
 Load and tyre pressure
 Temperature of tyre and pavement
FRICTION
 Smooth and worn out tyres offer higher friction factor on dry
pavement but new tyre with good threads give higher
friction factor on wet pavement
 IRC recommended the longitudinal co-efficient of friction
varies 0.35 to 0.4 and lateral co-efficient of friction of 0.15
PAVEMENT UNEVENNESS
 Higher operating speed are possible on even surface than uneven
surface.

It affects,
 Vehicle operation cost
 Comfort and safety
 Fuel consumption
 Wear and tear of tyres and other moving parts
 It is commonly measure by an equipment call “Bump Integrator”
 Bump integrator is the cumulative measure of vertical undulations
of the pavement surface recorded per unit horizontal length.
 250 cm/km for a speed of 100kmph and more than 350 cm/km
considered very unsatisfactory even at speed of 50 kmph.
PAVEMENT UNEVENNESS
Unevenness of pavement surface may be caused by
 In adequate compaction of the fill, subgrade and pavement
layers.
 Un-scientific construction practices including the use of
boulder stones and bricks as soiling course over loose
subgrade soil.
 Use of inferior pavement material.
 Improper surface and subsurface drainage.
 Improper construction machinery.
 Poor maintenance.
BUMP INTEGRATOR
BUMP INTEGRATOR
LIGHT REFLECTING CHARACTERISTICS
 Night visibility very much depends upon the light reflecting
characteristics of the pavement surface
 The glare caused by the reflection of head light is high on
wet pavement surface than on dry pavement particularly in
case of black top pavement or flexible pavement.
 Light coloured or white pavement or rigid pavement surface
give good visibility at night particularly during the rain, and
produces glare or eye strain during bright sunlight.
HIGHWAY CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS
 Carriageway  Side slope
 Shoulder  Kerb
 Roadway width  Guard rail
 Right of way  Side drain
 Building line  Other facilities
 Control line
 Median
 Camber/ cross slope
 Crown
CARRIAGEWAY

 It is the travel way which is used for movement of vehicle, it

takes the vehicular loading .
 It may be cement concrete road or bituminous pavement.
 Width of carriageway is determined on the basis of the
width of the vehicle and the minimum side clearance for
safety.
 As per IRC specification, the maximum width of vehicle is
2.44m,minimum clearance of 0.68 in case of single lane and
1.02m in case of double lane.
CARRIAGEWAY
CARRIAGEWAY
CARRIAGEWAY
SHOULDER
 It is provided along the road edge to serve as an emergency lane
for vehicle.
 It act as a service lane for vehicles that have broken down.
 The minimum shoulder width of 4.6 m so that a truck stationed at
the side of the shoulder would have a clearance of 1.85m from the
pavement edge.
 IRC recommended the minimum shoulder width is 2.5 m
 It should have sufficient load bearing capacity even in wet weather.
 The surface of the shoulder be rougher than the traffic lanes so
that vehicles are discouraged to use the shoulder as a regular
traffic.
 The colour should be different from that of the pavement so as to
be distinct.
SHOULDER
SHOULDER
WIDTH OF THE ROADWAY OR
FORMATION WIDTH
 It is the sum of the width of the carriageway or pavement
including separators if any and the shoulders.
RIGHT OF WAY

 It is the total area of land acquired for the road along its
alignment.
 It depends on the importance of the road and possible
future development.
 It is desirable to acquire more width of land as the cost of
adjoining land invariably increases very much , soon after
the new highway is constructed.
RIGHT OF WAY
BUILDING LANE

 In order to reserve sufficient space for future development

of roads, It is desirable to control the building activities on
either side of the road boundary, beyond the land width
acquired for the land.
CONTROL LINES

 In addition to “building line”, it is desirable to control the

nature of building up to further “set back distance”.
TRAFFIC SEPARATORS OR MEDIAN

 The main function is to prevent head on collision between

the vehicle moving in opposite direction.
 Channelize traffic into streams at intersection.
 Segregate slow traffic and to protect pedestrians.
 IRC recommends a minimum desirable width of 5 m and
may be reduce to 3 m where land is restricted.
 The minimum width of median in urban area is 1.2m.
TRAFFIC SEPARATORS OR MEDIAN
CAMBER OR CROSS SLOPE
 CAMBER OR CROSS SLOPE

 It is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse

direction to drain off the rain water from the road surface.
 To prevent the entry of surface water into the subgradesoil
through pavement.
 To prevent the entry of water into the bituminous pavement
layer.
 To remove the rain water from the pavement surface as
quick as possible and to allow the pavement to get dry soon
after the rain.
 It is expressed as a percentage or 1V:Nh.
 It depends on the pavement surface and amount of rainfall.
 CAMBER OR CROSS SLOPE

The camber can be provided in three ways as shown in

figure.

[Link] camber

[Link] camber

[Link] of straight and parabolic camber.

CAMBER OR CROSS SLOPE

Straight Camber

Parabolic Camber
CAMBER OR CROSS SLOPE
EXAMPLE - I

In a district where the rainfall is heavy, major district roadof

WBM pavement, 3.8 m wide, and a state highway of
bituminous concrete pavement, 7.0 m wide are to be
constructed. What should be the height of the crown with
respect to the edges in these two cases ?
A road width of 3.5 is to be laid. Calculate the maximum
height of crown with respect to edges if a parabolic camber
for major district road with thin bituminous surface is to be
constructed in the areas of heavy rainfall.

a= nW/2 Y
Too steep slope is not desirable because of the following
reasons
 Uncomfortable side thrust and unequal wear of the tyres as
well as road surface.
 Problem of toppling over highly laden bullock cart and truck.
 Tendency of most of vehicle travel along the centre line.
 KERB
 The boundaries between pavement and shoulders or footpaths
are known as Kerbs.
 OR
 A Kerb is a vertical or sloping member along the edge of a
pavement or shoulder, forming part of gutter, strengthening or
protecting the edge and clearly defining the edge to vehicle
operators.

The Functions of Kerb are:

 To facilitate and control drainage.
 To strengthen and protect the pavement edge.
 To present a more finished appearance.
 To assist in the orderly development of the roadside.
 KERB

Functionally they could be of three types:

[Link] or mountable kerbs

 These kerbs are indicators between the boundary of a road
shoulder.
 It allow the driver to enter the shoulder area with little
difficulty.
 The height of the this type of shoulder kerb is about 10 cm
above the pavement edge with slope to help the vehicle
climb the kerb easily.
 KERB

Functionally they could be of three types:

[Link]-barrier kerbs:
 It prevent encroachment of slow speed or parking vehicles
to the foot path.
 It is provided on the periphery of a roadway where the
pedestrian traffic is high.
 Height of about 15 cm above the pavement edge with a
batter of 1:1 on the top 7.5 cm.
 It prevents parking the vehicle but during emergency it is
possible to drive over this kerb with some difficulty.
 KERB

Functionally they could be of three types:

3. Barrier type kerbs

 They are mainly provided to cause obstructions to the
vehicles leaving the carriage way under emergency.
 It is provided in built-up area adjacent to the foot paths
with considerable pedestrian traffic.
 The height of the kerb is about 20 cm above the pavement
edge with a steep batter of 1V:0.25H.
 GUARD RAIL

 It is provided at the edge of the shoulder when the road is

constructed on a fill exceeds 3 m.
 It is also provided on horizontal curve so as to provide a
better night visibility of the curves under the head light of
the vehicle.
ROAD MARGINS
PARKING LANE
 These are provided on urban roads to allow kerb parking.
 As far as possible only parallel parking should be allowed as it is safer
for moving vehicle.
 It should have sufficient width say 3m.

LAY BAY
 These are provided near the public conveniences with guide map to
enable driver to stop clear off the carriageway.
 It has 3m width,30m length with 15m end tapers on both sides.

BUS BAYS
 These may be provided by recessing the kerb to avoid conflict with
moving traffic.
 It is located atleast75m away from the intersection.
ROAD MARGINS

FRONTAGE ROAD
 These are provided to give access to properties along an important
highway with control access to express way or free way
 It may run parallel to the highway and are isolated by separator.

DRIVEWAY
 It connect the highway with commercial establishment like fuel
stations, service stations etc…
 It should be located away from the intersection.

CYCLE TRACK
 It provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic on the road
is very high.
 A minimum width of 2m is provided for cycle track.
ROAD MARGINS

FOOTPATH
 These are provided in urban areas when the vehicular as well
as pedestrian traffic are heavy.
 To protect the pedestrian and decrease accident.
 Minimum width of 1.5m is provided.
CROSS-SECTION OF ROAD & ITS ELEMENTS
SIGHT DISTNCE

 Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance

along the road surface, which a driver from a specified height
above the carriageway has visibility of stationary or moving
objects.

OR
 It is the length of road visible ahead to the driver at any
instance.
SIGHT DISTNCE
SIGHT DISTNCE
TYPES OF SIGHT DISTANCE

 Stopping or absolute minimum sight distance(SSD)

 Safe overtaking or passing sight distance (OSD)
 Safe sight distance for entering into uncontrolled intersection.
 Intermediate sight distance
 Head light sight distance
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
 The minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot
should be of sufficient length to stop a vehicle travelling at design
speed, safely without collision with any other obstruction.

OVER TAKING SIGHT DISTANCE

 The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle
intending to overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety against the
traffic of opposite direction is known as the minimum overtaking
sight distance (OSD) or the safe passing sight distance.

SIGHT DISTANCE AT INTERSECTION

 Driver entering an uncontrolled intersection (particularly un
signalised Intersection)has sufficient visibility to enable him to
take control of his vehicle and to avoid collision with another
vehicle.
INTERMEDIATE SIGHT DISTANCE
 This is defined as twice the stopping sight distance. When
overtaking sight distance can not be provided, intermediate
sight distance is provided to give limited overtaking
opportunities to fast vehicles.

HEAD LIGHT SIGHT DISTANCE

 This is the distance visible to a driver during night driving
under the illumination of the vehicle head lights. This sight
distance is critical at up-gradients and at the ascending stretch
of the valley curves.
 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE
 SSD is the minimum sight distance available on a highway at
any spot having sufficient length to enable the driver to stop a
vehicle travelling at design speed, safely without collision with
any other obstruction.

It depends on:
 Feature of road ahead
 Height of driver’s eye above the road surface(1.2m)
 Height of the object above the road surface(0.15m)
 CRITERIA FOR MEASUREMENT
 Height of driver’s eye above road surface (H)
 Height of object above road surface(h)
 FACTORS AFFECTING THE SSD

 Total reaction time of driver

 Speed of vehicle
 Efficiency of brakes
 Frictional resistance between road and tyre
 Gradient of road
TOTAL REACTION TIME OF DRIVER

It is the time taken from the instant the object is visible to the
driver to the instant the brake is effectively applied, it divide
into types

[Link] time

[Link] reaction time

PERCEPTION TIME
 It is the time from the instant the object comes on the line of
sight of the driver to the instant he realizes that the vehicle
needs to be stopped.

BRAKE REACTION TIME

 The brake reaction also depends on several factor including
the skill of the driver, the type of the problems and various
other environment factor.
 Total reaction time of driver can be calculated by “PIEV” theory
“PIEV” Theory

Total reaction time of driver is split into four parts:

 P - perception
 I - intellection
 E - Emotion
 V - Volition
PERCEPTION
 It is the time required for the sensation received by the eyes or ears
to be transmitted to the brain through the nervous system and
spinal chord.

INTELLECTION
 It is the time required for understanding the situation.

EMOTION
 It is the time elapsed during emotional sensation and disturbance
such as fear, anger or any other emotional feeling such as
superstition etc, with reference to the situation.

VOLITION
 It is the time taken for the final action

Total reaction time of driver may be vary from 0.5 sec to 4 sec
 ANALYSIS OF SSD
 The stopping sight distance is the sum of lag distance and the
braking distance.

Lag distance:
 It is the distance, the vehicle travelled during the reaction time
 If‘ ‘V’ is the design speed in m/sec and ‘t’ is the total reaction
time of the driver in seconds,
 ANALYSIS OF SSD
BRAKING DISTANCE
 It is the distance travelled by the vehicle after the application
of brake. For a level road this is obtained by equating the work
done in stopping the vehicle and the kinetic energy of the
vehicle.
 Work done against friction force in stopping the vehicle is F xl
= f Wl, where W is the total weight of the vehicle.
 The kinetic energy at the design speed of v m/sec will be ½ m.
v²
 Braking distance= v²/2gf
 ANALYSIS OF SSD

 SSD=lag distance + braking distance

 SSD=0.278V.t + v²/254f
 Two-way traffic single lane road: SSD=2*SSD
 In one-way traffic with single or more lane or two-way traffic
with more than single lane: Minimum SSD= SSD
 PROBLEMS
 Calculate the safe SSD for the design speed of 50
kmph for (a) 2 way traffic on a two lane road (b) 2
way traffic on a single lane road. Assume coefficient
of friction and reaction time of driver as per IRC
recommendations.
 Calculate the minimum SD required to avoid head on

collision of two cars approaching from the opposite

directions at 90 and 60 kmph. Assume a reaction
time of 2.5 seconds, coefficient of friction of 0.7 and
a brake efficiency of 50 percent, in either case.
 Calculate the safe SSD on a highway at a descending

gradient of 2% for a design speed of 80kmph.

Assume other data as per IRC recommendations.
 FACTORS AFFECTING THE OSD
 Speeds of
 Overtaking vehicle
 Overtaken vehicle
 The vehicle coming from opposite direction, if any.
 Distance between the overtaking and overtaken vehicles.
 Skill and reaction time of the driver
 Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle
 Gradient of the road
 ANALYSIS OF OSD
 d1is the distance travelled by overtaking vehicle “A” during the
reaction time t sec of the driver from position A1 to A2.
 d2is the distance travelled by the vehicle
AfromA2toA3duringtheactual overtaking operation, in time T
sec.
 d3is the distance travelled by on-coming vehicleCfromC1to
C2during the over taking operation of A, i.e. T sec.
 ANALYSIS OF OSD
 B is the overtaken or slow moving vehicle.
 B is the overtaken or slow moving vehicle moving with uniform
speed Vb m/sec or Vb kmph;
 C is a vehicle coming from opposite direction at the design
speed V m/sec or V kmph
 The distance travelled by the vehicle A during this reaction
time is d1and is between thepositionsA1 and A2. this distance
will be equal to Vb.t meter
 where t is the reaction time of the driver in second= 2 sec.
 OVERTAKING ZONES
 It is desirable to construct highways in such a way that the length
of road visible ahead at every point is sufficient for safe overtaking.
This is seldom practicable and there may be stretches where the
safe overtaking distance cannot be provided. But the overtaking
opportunity for vehicles moving at design speed should be given at
frequent intervals. These zones which are meant for overtaking are
called overtaking zones.
 The minimum length of overtaking zone should be three time the
safe overtaking distance i.e., 3(d1+d2) for one-way roads and
3(d1+d2+d3) for two-way roads.
 Desirable length of overtaking zones is kept five times the
overtaking sight distance .i.e., 5(d1+d2) for one-way roads and
5(d1+d2+d3) for two-way roads.
 Table: Maximum overtaking acceleration at different
speeds

Table : Overtaking sight distance on Two lane highways for various

speeds
Example -1

The speed of the overtaking and overtaken vehicle are 70 and

40 kmph, respectively on a two way traffic road. If the
acceleration of overtaking vehicle is 0.99 m/sec²,

a)Calculate safe overtaking sight distance

b)Calculate the minimum and desirable length of overtaking zone

c)Draw the neat-sketch of the overtaking zone and show the

position of the sign post.

Example -2

Calculate the safe overtaking sight distance for a design speed

of 96 kmph, assume all other data suitable
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
 HORIZONTAL CURVES
 A horizontal highway curve is a curve in plan to provide change
in direction to the central line of a road. When a vehicle
traverses a horizontal curve, the centrifugal force acts
horizontally outwards through the centre of gravity of the
vehicle.
 P = W v²∕gR
 Where,
 P = centrifuge force, kg
 W = weight of the vehicle, kg
 R = radius of the circular curve, m
 v = speed of vehicle, m/sec
 g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8m/sec
HORIZONTAL CURVES
 HORIZONTAL CURVES

 P/W is known as the centrifugal ratio or the impact

factor. The centrifuge ratio is thus equal to v²∕gR
 The centrifugal force acting on a vehicle negotiating a
horizontal curve has two effects
 Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about the outer
wheels
 Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally, outwards
 HORIZONTAL CURVES
OVERTURNING EFFECT
 The equilibrium condition for overturning will occur when Ph =
Wb/2, or when P/W =b/2h. This means that there is danger of
overturning when the centrifugal when the centrifugal ratio
P/W or v²/gR attains a values of b/2h.
 HORIZONTAL CURVES
TRANSVERSE SKIDDING EFFECT
 P = FA+ FB= f(RA+RB) =fW
 Since P = f W, the centrifugal ratio P/W is equal to ‘f‘. In other
words when the centrifugal ratio attains a value equal to the
coefficient of lateral friction there is a danger of lateral
skidding.
 Thus to avoid overturning and lateral skidding on a horizontal
curve, the centrifugal ratio should always be less than b/2h
and also ‘f’’.
 ‘f’ is less than b/2h.-The vehicle would skid and not overturn
 b/2his lower than ‘f’ ’-The vehicle would overturn on the outer
side before skidding.
 SUPERELEVATION
 In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to
reduce the tendency of the vehicle to overturn or skid, the
outer edge of the pavement is raised with respect to the inner
edge, thus providing a transverse slope throughout the length
of the horizontal curve, this transverse inclination to the
pavement surface is known as Superelevation or cant or
banking.
 The Superelevation ‘e’ is expressed as the ratio of the height
of outer edge with respect to the horizontal width.
SUPERELEVATION
 ANALYSIS OF SUPERELEVATION
The force acting on the vehicle while moving on a circular
curve of radius R meters, at speed of v m/sec are:
 The centrifugal force P=Wv²/gR acting horizontal outwards
through the centre of gravity, CG.
 The weight W of the vehicle acting vertically downloads
through the CG.
 The frictional force developed between the wheels and the
pavement counteractions transversely along the pavement
surface towards the centre of the curve.
ANALYSIS OF SUPERELEVATION
 ANALYSIS OF SUPERELEVATION
 e = rate of Superelevation = tanӨ
 f = design value of lateral friction coefficient = 0.15
 v = speed of the vehicle, m/sec
 R = radius of the horizontal curve, mg = acceleration due to
gravity = 9.8 m/sec²
 MAXIMUM SUPERELEVATION
 In the case of heavily loaded bullock carts and trucks carrying less
dense materials like straw or cotton, the centre of gravity of the
loaded vehicle will be relatively high and it will not be safe for such
vehicles to move on a road with a high rate of Superelevation.
Because of the slow speed, the centrifugal force will be negligibly
small in the case of bullock carts. Hence to avoid the danger of
toppling of such loaded slow moving vehicles, it is essential to limit
the value of maximum allowable Superelevation.
 Indian Roads Congress had fixed the maximum limit of
Superelevation in plan and rolling terrains and is snow bound
areas as 7.0 %.
 On hill roads not bound by snow a maximum Superelevation up to
10%.
 On urban road stretches with frequent intersections, it may be
 MINIMUM SUPERELEVATION
 From drainage consideration it is necessary to have a minimum
cross to drain off the surface water. If the calculated Superelevation
is equal to or less than the camber of the road surface, then the
minimum Superelevation to be provided on horizontal curve may be
limited to the camber of the surface.
DESIGN OF SUPERELEVATION
 DESIGN OF SUPERELEVATION
•Step-4: The allowable speed (Va m/sec. or Va kmph) at the curve is
calculated by considering the design coefficient of lateral friction
and the maximum Superelevation.

•e+f = 0.07+0.15 = Va²/127R

•If the allowed speed, as calculated above is higher than the design
speed, then the design is adequate and provides a Superelevation
of ‘e’ equal to 0.07.

•If the allowable speed is less than the design speed, the speed is
limited to the allowed speed Va kmph calculated above and
Appropriate warning sign and speed limit regulation sign are
installed to restrict and regulate the speed.
 ATTAINMENT OF SUPERELEVATION

SPLIT-UP INTO TWO PARTS:

1. Elimination of crown of the cambered section.

2. Rotation of pavement to attain full super elevation.

 ATTAINMENT OF SUPERELEVATION
Elimination of crown of the cambered section

1st Method: Outer edge rotated about the crown

Disadvantages
 Small length of road –cross slope less than camber
 Drainage problem in outer half
 ATTAINMENT OF SUPERELEVATION
Elimination of crown of the cambered section

2nd Method: Crown shifted outwards

Disadvantages
 Large negative superelevation on outer half
 Drivers have the tendency to run the vehicle along shifted
crown
 ATTAINMENT OF SUPERELEVATION
Rotation of pavement to attain full superelevation

1stMethod: Rotation about the C/L (depressing the inner edge

and raising the outer edge each by half the total amount of
superelevation)

Advantages
 Earthwork is balanced
 Vertical profile of the C/L remains unchanged

Disadvantages
 Drainage problem: depressing the inner edge below the
general level
 ATTAINMENT OF SUPERELEVATION
Rotation of pavement to attain full superelevation

2nd Method: Rotation about the Inner edge (raising both the
centre as well as outer edge –outer edge is raised by the total
amount of superelevation)

Advantages
 No drainage problem

Disadvantages
 Additional earth filling
 C/L of the pavement is also raised (vertical alignment of the
road is changed)
Example-1

The radius of horizontal circular curve is 100m. The design speed is

50kmph and the design coefficient of lateral friction is 0.15.

 Calculate the superelevation required if full lateral friction is assumed

to develop

 Calculate the coefficient of friction needed if no superelevation is

provided.

 Calculate the equilibrium superelevation if the pressure on inner and

outer wheels should be equal.

Example-2

 A two lane road with design speed 80kmph has horizontal curve of
radius 480m. Design the rate of superelevation for mixed traffic. By
how much should the outer edges of the pavement be raised with
respect to the centre line , if the pavement is rotated with respect to
Exapmle-3
 Design the super elevation for a horizontal highway curve of
radius 500m and speed 100kmph

Example-4
 The design speed of highway is 80kmph. There is horizontal
curve of radius 200m on a certain locality. Calculate the
superelevation needed to maintain this speed.
 RADIUS OF HORIZONTAL CURVE

 The ruling minimum radius of the curve for ruling design speed
v m/sec. Or V kmph is given by:

 According to the earlier specifications of the IRC, the ruling

minimum radius of the horizontal curve was calculated from a
speed value, 16 kmph higher than the design speed i,e.,
(V+16) kmph.
Example-1
 Calculate the values of ruling minimum and absolute minimum
radius of horizontal curve of a national highway in plane
terrain. Assume ruling design speed and minimum design
speed values as 100 and 80 kmph respectively.
 WIDENING OF PAVEMENT ON
HORIZONTAL CURVES

 On horizontal curves, especially when they are not of very

large radii, it is common to widen the pavement slightly more
than the normal width.
 WIDENING OF PAVEMENT ON
HORIZONTAL CURVES
Widening is needed for the following reasons :
 The driver experience difficulties in steering around the curve.
 The vehicle occupies a greater width as the rear wheel don’t
track the front wheel. known as ‘Off tracking’
 For greater visibility at curve, the driver have tendency not to
follow the central path of the lane, but to use the outer side at
the beginning of the curve.
 While two vehicle cross or overtake at horizontal curve there is
psychological tendency to maintain a greater clearance
between the vehicle for safety.
 OFF TRACKING
 An automobile has a rigid wheel base and only the front
wheels can be turned, when this vehicle takes a turn to
negotiate a horizontal curve, the rear wheel do not follow the
same path as that of the front wheels. This phenomenon is
called off tracking.
 The required extra widening of the pavement at the horizontal
curves depends on the length of the wheel base of the vehicle
‘l’, radius of the curve ‘R’ and the psychological factors.
ANALYSIS OF EXTRA WIDENING ON CURVES

It is divided into two parts:

 Mechanical widening (Wm): the widening required to
account for the off tracking due to the rigidity of wheel base is
called mechanical widening
 Psychological widening (Wps): extra width of the
pavement is also provided for psychological reasons such as ,
to provide for greater manoeuvrability of steering at high
speed, to allow for the extra space for overhangs of vehicles
and to provide greater clearance for crossing and overturning
vehicles on curve.
 Total widening W = Wps+ Wm
MECHANICAL WIDENING
It is divided into two parts:
 Mechanical widening (Wm): the widening required to
account for the off tracking due to the rigidity of wheel base is
called mechanical widening
 Psychological widening (Wps): extra width of the
pavement is also provided for psychological reasons such as ,
to provide for greater manoeuvrability of steering at high
speed, to allow for the extra space for overhangs of vehicles
and to provide greater clearance for crossing and overturning
vehicles on curve.
 Total widening W = Wps+ Wm
MECHANICAL WIDENING
MECHANICAL WIDENING
 Where, R = Mean radius of the curve in m, n=no. of traffic
lanes R = Mean radius of the curve, ml = Length of Wheel
base of longest vehicle , m ( l = 6.0 m or 6.1m for commercial
vehicles)V= design speed, kmph
PSYCHOLOGICAL WIDENING
METHOD OF INTRODUCING EXTRA WIDENING
 With transition curve: increase the width at an approximately
uniform rate along the transition curve -the extra width should
be continued over the full length of circular curve.
 Without transition curves: provide two-third widening on
tangent and the remaining one-third on the circular curve
beyond the tangent point.
 With transition curve: Widening is generally applied equally on
both sides of the carriageway.
 Without transition curve: the entire widening should be done
on inner side.
 On sharp curves of hill roads: the entire widening should be
done on inner side.
METHOD OF INTRODUCING EXTRA WIDENING
Example-1
 Calculate the extra widening required for a pavement of width
7m on a horizontal curve of radius 250m if the longest wheel
base of vehicle expected on the road is 7.0 m. design speed is
70 kmph.

Example-2
 Find the total width of two lane road on a horizontal curve for a
new National highway to be aligned along a rolling terrain with
a ruling minimum radius having ruling design speed of 80
kmph. Assume necessary data as per IRC.
HORIZONTAL TRANSITION CURVES

 When a non circular curve is introduce between a straight and

a circular curve has a varying radius which decreases from
infinity at the straight end (tangent point) to the desired radius
of the circular curve at the other end (curve point) for the
gradual introduction of centrifugal force is known as transition
curve.
HORIZONTAL TRANSITION CURVES
HORIZONTAL TRANSITION CURVES
Objectives for providing transition curve
 To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the
tangent point and the beginning of the circular curve, avoiding
sudden jerk on the vehicle. This increases the comfort of
passengers.
 To enable the driver turn the steering gradually for his own
comfort and security.
 To provide gradual introduction of super elevation.
 To provide gradual introduction of extra widening.
 To enhance the aesthetic appearance of the road.
TYPE OF TRANSITION CURVE
1. Spiral or clothoid

2. Cubic parabola

3. Lemniscate

 IRC recommends spiral as the transition curve because it fulfils

the requirement of an ideal transition curve, that is;
 Rate of change or centrifugal acceleration is consistent
 Radius of the transition curve is infinity at the straight edge
and changes to R at the curve point (Ls ᾳ1/R)and calculation
and field implementation is very easy.
LENGTH OF TRANSITION CURVE
Case-1: Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration

Where,
 Ls= length of transition curve in ‘m’
 C= allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, m/
sec²
LENGTH OF TRANSITION CURVE
Case-2 : Rate of introduction of super-elevation
 If the pavement is rotated about the centre line.

 If the pavement is rotated about the inner edge.

Where
 W is the width of pavement
 We is the extra widening
 Rate of change of superelevation of 1 in N
LENGTH OF TRANSITION CURVE
Case-3 : By empirical formula
 According to IRC standards:
 For plane and rolling terrain:

 For mountainous and steep terrain:

SHIFT OF THE TRANSITION CURVE
Example-1
Calculate the length of the transition curve and shift using the
following data:
 Design speed= 65 kmph

 Radius of circular curve= 220 m

 Allowable rate of superelevation= 1 in 150

 Pavement rotated about the centre line of the pavement

 Pavement width including extra widening= 7.5 m

Example-2
A national highway passing through rolling terrain in heavy
rain fall area has a horizontal curve of radius 500 m. Design
the length of transition curve using the fallowing data.
 Design speed of vehicle= 80 kmph

 Allowable rate of superelevation= 1 in 150

 Pavement rotated about the inner edge of the pavement.

 Pavement width excluding extra widening= 7 m.

SET-BACK DISTANCE ON HORIZONTAL
CURVE
 Where there are sight obstruction like buildings, cut slope or
trees on the inner sides of the curves, either the obstruction
should be removed or the alignment should be changed in
order to provide adequate sight distance. If it is not possible to
provide adequate sight distance on the curves on existing
roads, regulatory sign should be installed to control the traffic
suitably.
 Clearance distance or set-back distance is the distance
required from the centre line of a horizontal curve to an
obstruct on the inner side of the curve to provide adequate
sight distance in m.
Case-I: If length of curve (Lc ) > sight distance(S)

Where,
m’ = set-back distance
d = the distance between the centre line of the road and the
centre line of the inside lane in ‘m’
R = radius of the curve in ‘m’
α = angle subtended by the arc length ‘S’ at the centre
 Case-II: If length of curve (Lc ) < sight distance(S)

Where ‘Lc’ is the length of curve and ‘S’ is the sight distance
Example-1:

There is a horizontal curve of radius 400 m and length 200 m

on this highway. Compute the set-back distance required from
the centre line on the inner side of the curve so as to provide
for
 Stopping sight distance of 90 m
 Safe overtaking distance of 300 m
 Distance between the centre line of the road and the inner
lane is 1.9 m.

Example-2:

A state highway passing through a rolling terrain has a

horizontal curve of radius equal to the ruling minimum radius
for a ruling design speed of 80 kmph. calculate the set-back
distance required from the centre line on the inner side of the
CURVE RESISTANCE
 The automobiles are steered by turning the front wheels, but
the rear wheels do not turn. When a vehicle driven by rear
wheels move on a horizontal curve, the direction of rotation of
rear and front wheels are different and so there is some losses
in the tractive force.
 Thus the loss of tractive force due to turning of a vehicle on a
horizontal curve, which is termed as curve resistance will be
equal to (T-Tcosα) or T(1-cosα) and will depend on turning
angle α.
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

 The vertical alignment is the elevation or profile of the centre

line of the road.
 The vertical alignment consist of grade and vertical curve and
it influence the vehicle speed, acceleration, sight distance and
comfort in vehicle movements at high speed.
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
TYPICAL GRADIENTS (IRC)

 Ruling Gradient
 Limiting Gradient
 Exceptional gradient
 Minimum Gradient
RULING GRADIENT (DESIGN GRADIENT)

It is the maximum gradient within which the designer attempts

to design the vertical profile of road, it depends on:
 Type of terrain
 Length of grade
 Speed
 Pulling power of vehicles
 Presence of horizontal curves
 Mixed traffic
LIMITING GRADIENT

Steeper than ruling gradient. In hilly roads, it may be

frequently necessary to exceed ruling gradient and adopt
limiting gradient, it depends on
 Topography
 Cost in constructing the road

EXCEPTIONAL GRADIENT

Exceptional gradient are very steeper gradients given at

unavoidable situations. They should be limited for short
stretches not exceeding about 100 m at a stretch.
CRITICAL LENGTH OF THE GRADE

The maximum length of the ascending gradient which a loaded

truck can operate without undue reduction in speed is called
critical length of the grade. A speed of 25 kmph is a reasonable
value. This value depends on the size, power, load, initial speed.

MINIMUM GRADIENT
 This is important only at locations where surface drainage is
important. Camber will take care of the lateral drainage. But the
longitudinal drainage along the side drains require some slope
for smooth flow of water. Therefore minimum gradient is
provided for drainage purpose and it depends on the rainfall,
type of soil and other site conditions.
 A minimum of 1 in 500 may be sufficient for concrete drain and
1 in 200 for open soil drains.
SUMMIT CURVE
Length of summit curve(L) for SSD

Case-1 (L > SSD)

Case-2 (L < SSD)

SUMMIT CURVE
Length of summit curve for OSD

Case-1 (L > OSD)

Case-2 (L < OSD)

SUMMIT CURVE

 S = sight distance i.e. SSD, OSD or ISD

 N = deviation angle i.e. algebraic difference between
two grade
 H = height of driver eye above the carriageway i.e.
1.2 m
 h = height of driver eye above the carriageway i.e.
0.15 m
VALLEY CURVE
Length of valley curve for comfort condition

N = deviation angle i.e. algebraic difference between two

grade
C = rate of change of centrifugal acceleration may be taken
as 0.6 m/sec³
V = speed of vehicle in kmph
VALLEY CURVE
Length of valley curve for head light sight distance

Case-1(L > SSD)

Case-2(L < SSD)

VALLEY CURVE

 h1 = height of head light above the carriage way

 α= inclination of focused portion of the beam of light
w.r.t horizontal or beam angle .
 N= deviation angle i.e. algebraic difference between
two grade
 S=head light distance is equal to SSD
Example -1

A vertical summit curve is formed at the intersection of two

gradient, +3% and -5%. Design the length of summit curve to
provide a SSD for a design speed of 80 kmph. Assume any
other data as per IRC.

Example-2

A vertical summit curve is to be designed when two grades,

+1/50 and -1/80 meet on a highway. The SSD and OSD required
are 180 and 640 m respectively. But due to the site conditions
the length of the vertical curve has to be restricted to a
maximum value of 500 m if possible. Calculate the length of
the summit curve needed to fulfil the requirements of SSD,
OSD or atleast ISD.
Example-3

A valley is formed by a descending grade of 1 in 25 meeting

an ascending grade of 1 in 30. Design the length of valley
curve to fulfil both comfort condition and headlight distance
requirements for a design speed of 80 kmph. Assume
allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is 0.6
m/sec3.

Example-4

An ascending gradient of 1 in 100 meets a descending

gradient of 1 in 120. A summit curve is to be designed for a
speed of 80 kmph so as to have an OSD of 470m.
GRADE COMPENSATION

 At the horizontal curve, due to the turning angle α of the

vehicle, the curve resistance developed is equal to T(1-
Cosα).
 When there is a horizontal curve in addition to the
gradient, there will be an increase in resistance to
fraction due to both gradient and curve.
 It is necessary that in such cases the total resistance due
to grade and the curve should not exceed the resistance
due to maximum value of the gradient specified.
 Maximum value generally taken as ruling gradient.
GRADE COMPENSATION

 Thus grade compensation can be defined as the reduction in

gradient at the horizontal curve because of the additional
tractive force required due to curve resistance (T−Tcosα),
which is intended to offset the extra tractive force involved
at the curve.

IRC gave the following specification for the grade compensation.

 Grade compensation is not required for grades flatter than
4% because the loss of tractive force is negligible.
 Grade compensation is (30+R)/R %, where ‘R’ is the radius
of the horizontal curve in meters.
 The maximum grade compensation is limited to 75/R%.
Example-1

While aligning a hilly road with a ruling gradient of 6%, a

horizontal curve of radius 60 m is encountered. Fond the
compensated gradient at the curve.