Lectures #4-5. Electromagnetic induction.
Content :
• Electromagnetic induction. Faraday’s law. Lenz's law.
• Induced electric field.
• Motional emf.
• Generators and motors.
• Magnetic medium.
• Self-induction and mutual induction.
• The transformer.
• Inductance.
• Inductance within circuits.
• Magnetic field energy. 1
Learning objectives
• To become familiar with the physical
phenomena associated with Faraday's Law.
• To review the meaning of the flux of a field
through an open surface.
• To comprehend the meaning of the statement
that the induced emf is given by the negative of
the time rate of change of the magnetic flux.
• To categorize the various ways we use to induce
an emf.
2
Learning objectives (continuation)
• To become familiar with the phenomena of self-
inductance and how to calculate it for a given
configuration of wires.
• To comprehend the reason that energy is stored in
inductors.
• To relate the energy stored in inductors to the energy
density of the magnetic field.
• To comprehend how eddy current braking arises and
how it relates to Faraday's Law.
• To become familiar with the properties of transformers.
3
Electromagnetic induction. Faraday’s law. Lenz's law.
In 1831 Faraday discovered that electric currents could be
induced by magnetic fields.
A changing electric current in a coil can induce another
current in the same coil. As a result, the current in a coil
consists of two components, the initial current plus an
induced current.
This effect is known as self-inductance or, more simply, as just
inductance.
Inductance, like resistance and capacitance, plays an
important role in the behavior of electrical circuits.
During the middle of the nineteenth century, Maxwell showed
that a complete theory of electromagnetism could be
constructed from a set of only four equations.
4
Electromagnetic induction. Faraday’s law.
Lenz's law.
(a) Moving a magnet toward a coil generates an electric current
in the loop, detected by the galvanometer.
(b) Moving the same end of the magnet away from the coil
generates a current in the opposite directions
5
Electromagnetic induction. Faraday’s law. Lenz's law.
• The currents observed in the secondary coil were
entirely due to the changing magnetic flux within the
coil.
• Faraday's law: the emf induced in a loop of wire is
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux
through the coil.
• We often call the emf induced by a changing magnetic
flux an induced emf, and the current it produces is
called an induced current or an induction current.
6
Electromagnetic induction. Faraday’s law. Lenz's law.
• The magnetic flux т through an area A is the product of the
magnitude of the magnetic field |B|, the area A, and the cosine
of the angle between the direction of the field and the
direction of the normal to the area
• The maximum number of field lines pass through a wire loop
when its area is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic
field.
• As the loop turns so that the angle between its plane and the
field gets smaller, the effective area becomes smaller and fewer
field lines can pass through it. 7
Electromagnetic induction. Faraday’s law. Lenz's law.
Magnetic field passing through an area A. The normal to the area makes an
angle θ with the direction of the magnetic field.
The magnetic flux depends on the orientation of the field to the area through
the factor cos θ.
8
Induced electric field
Lenz's law : the direction of an induced
current is such that its own magnetic
field opposes the original change in the
flux that induced the current.
9
Induced electric field
(a) The motion of a magnet toward a coil induces a current in the coil. As the south
pole gets closer to the loop, the flux through the loop increases, (b) By Lenz's law,
the direction of the induced current produces a magnetic field that opposes the
increase in the flux. 10
Induced electric field
• Direction of this induced current is such as to generate a
magnetic field in the direction that opposes the change
in the flux. In this case, the initial field is opposite to the
direction of motion of the magnet (Fig. (a)), so the
induced field must be in the direction of motion of the
magnet (Fig. (b)). According to the right-hand rule, the
current is clockwise as seen from the position of the
magnet.
• If the magnet were moved away from the loop, the flux
through the loop would decrease and a current would be
induced in the opposite direction, whose field would still
try to maintain the field through the loop constant. That
is, the induced field opposes the change in external flux.11
Induced electric field
• For induced efm
• The minus sign indicates the direction of the
emf and is in agreement with Lenz's law.
• If we apply this equation to a coil containing N
loops or turns of wire, then
12
Motional emf
• We examine effects of a magnetic
field on a straight piece of wire
that moves relative to the field
• Let's consider a conducting bar of
length l sliding along a stationary
U-shaped conductor that is
perpendicular to a magnetic field
В.
• The bar moves with a constant
speed v in the x direction. As the
bar moves, the area enclosed by
the loop consisting of the bar and
the U-shaped conductor increases.
Consequently, the magnetic flux 13
Motional emf
A conducting bar sliding along a stationary U-shaped conductor that is
perpendicular to a magnetic B.
The area of the conducting changes, inducing an emf. The crosses
indicate a magnetic field directed into the plane of the loop.
14
Motional emf
• The emf developed around the loop is obtained from
Faraday's law
where A is the area enclosed by the loop. So
The development of an emf between the ends of the
moving bar CD depends on the motion of the bar
perpendicular to the magnetic field. The emf generated
in this manner is called a motional emf.
15
Generators and motors
• Faraday's discovery of induced currents soon
led to the development of practical machines
for converting mechanical energy into
electrical energy. Such machines, known as
electric generators, may be classified into two
main types: dc generators, for producing
unidirectional current, and ac generators,
called alternators, for producing alternating
current.
16
Generators and motors
Operation of an ac generator, called an alternator, (a) A loop of
wire (the armature) rotates in a magnetic field. The induced
alternating emf enters the external circuit through metal brushes
that rub against rotating metal rings, called slip rings, attached to
the armature. As the armature rotates clockwise to (b), the
magnetic flux increases to a maximum.
17
Generators and motors
When the armature rotates to (c) the flux is zero. At position (d) the flux is negative
relative to positions (a) and (b).
18
Generators and motors
If the field В is uniform and the coil rotates with a
constant angular speed , the magnetic flux
through the coil may be expressed as
where A is the area of the loop. From Faraday's law
19
Generators and motors
(a) Graph of the magnetic flux as a function of time for an armature rotating at constant angular velocity. The points
on the curve refer to the positions of the armature in parts (a-d) of (b) Graph of the voltage output of an alternator
versus time.
20
Generators and motors
• When an alternator is connected to a closed circuit, it
produces a sinusoidally alternating current .
• A dc (unidirectional) generator can be made from the
same rotating armature if we replace the slip rings by a
commutator (see next slide).
• The commutator is simply a slip ring split across the
diameter, so that as the loop rotates, it changes the
direction of its connection to the output circuit. If the
brush contacts are properly arranged with respect to the
commutator and the position of the loop, the polarity of
the emf can remain constant
21
Generators and motors
A dc generator. (a) As the
loop rotates in the magnetic
field, an induced emf is
produced between contacts A
and B. As the loop rotates to a
position where the polarity of
the emf between the
commutator contacts
reverses, the commutator
moves to the new position so
that the contact A touches
brush 2 and contact B touches
brush 1. Thus the polarity of
the output potential from
brush 1 to brush 2 is
maintained. 22
Generators and motors
(b) Graph of the voltage output of the dc generator versus time
23
Generators and motors
• As long as the external circuit is open, no
current flows through the armature and it
turns freely. But when the terminals of the
generator are joined to a closed circuit so that
current flows through the loop, a torque
results that resists the motion of the loop
(see next slide). Mechanical energy must be
supplied to the generator to overcome this
counter torque.
24
Generators and motors
As the loop rotates counterclockwise, an emf is induced ,
which , according to Lenz’s law , causes a current through
the loop in the direction shown by arrows . The force F
of the field on the current –carrying wire is F=IlB, which
causes a torque opposing the motion of the loop
Practical generators are similar in principle to the single-
loop generator just described. In a practical generator many
turns of wire are wrapped about a rotor or armature, which
turns in a magnetic field. 25
Generators and motors
• An electric motor is similar in operation and design to a
generator, but works in reverse.
• A single-loop armature rotates in a magnetic field when a
current is passed through the loop.
• For example, if we apply an external dc potential to the
brushes of the elementary dc generator, producing a current
in the loop, the magnetic field will exert a torque on the
armature, causing it to rotate. As the armature rotates
through the position where the plane of the loop is
perpendicular to the field, the commutator reverses the
contacts, so a torque in the same direction continues to turn
the armature.
• Here the input is electrical energy (from an external source)
and the output is mechanical energy (a torque acting 26
The transformer
• An extremely important application of
electromagnetic induction is the transformer,
a device featuring two multiturn coils of wire
wound on the same iron core (see next slide).
The common ferromagnetic core increases the
magnetic flux due to the input current and
maximizes the magnetic coupling between the
coils. The transformer is used for changing ac
voltages without appreciable power loss.
27
The transformer
(a) Schematic diagram of a transformer. We can choose the number of turns on the
input coil N1 and the output coil N2 to obtain the desired ratio of input voltage to
output voltage, (b) Circuit symbol for a transformer.
28
The transformer
• Let’s apply an ac voltage V1 across the primary coil (input)
of the transformer. The resulting current induces a
changing magnetic flux through the iron core that is
proportional to the number of turns N1 in the primary coil.
• This changing flux travels through the core and intercepts
the secondary winding, where it induces a voltage V2
proportional to the number of turns N2. This voltage is the
output voltage of the transformer. The ratio of input to
output voltages is
•
29
The transformer
• By a suitable choice of N1 and N2, we can make the transformer step
up (increase) the voltage output or step down (decrease) the output
with respect to the input.
• If we connect a resistive load across the secondary coil of the
transformer, a current I2 will pass through the load. This current is
due to the potential difference V2 induced by the changing flux.
• If we neglect any losses within the transformer, the law of
conservation of energy requires that the electrical energy output of
the transformer equal the electrical energy input. Since power is the
rate of change of energy, this is equivalent to saying that the input
and output powers are equal. The power is P = IV, so we can express
the conservation rule as
• I1V1= I2V2
30
Inductance
• Let's consider a coil of N turns of wire carrying
a current I. The current generates a magnetic
field that passes through each loop of the coil
(see next slide).
• The total magnetic flux passing through the
coil, which is the product of the number of
turns and the flux through each turn ,is
proportional to the current carried by the coil.
We can therefore write
31
Inductance
(a) A current I generates a flux φ passing through N turns. The proportionality constant is the inductance of the coil.
When the current changes the flux changes, inducing an emf that is proportional to the change in current,
(b) The circuit symbol for an inductor.
32
Inductance
• The proportionality constant L is called the
inductance of the coil, and depends only on
the shape and size of the coil. Sometimes L is
referred to as self-inductance, to distinguish it
from the mutual inductance between two
coils.
• If the current in a coil changes, as in the case
of alternating current, a corresponding change
in the flux occurs, given by
33
Inductance
• According to Faraday's law, the changing flux induces an
emf given by
• Thus a changing current in a coil induces an emf opposing
that change, and this induced emf is proportional to the
inductance of the coil.
• The units of inductance are volt-seconds per ampere. This
combination of units has been given the name henry
(abbreviated H):
1 henry = 1 volt-second/ampere.
• Any circuit component that exhibits inductance, like a
solenoid or other wire coil, is called an inductor. 34
Magnetic field energy
• We found that the power delivered to a resistive load
in an electric circuit was the product of current and
electric potential difference across the resistor. When
the load is an inductance of magnitude L, the power
required to produce a current I changing at a rate is
• In a small time interval t, the circuit's source of emf
delivers an amount of energy W to the inductor,
given by
35
Magnetic field energy
• The total energy required to build up the current
from zero to some value I0 is given by the sum
• Thus the total energy is found to be
• This is the energy required to build up a current
I0 in an inductor.
36
Maxwell’s equations and electromagnetic waves
• Maxwell showed that a complete description
of electromagnetic effects could be based on a
set of only four equations.
• These four equations could be used to
interpret and explain an impressive array of
electromagnetic phenomena.
• [Link]'s law for electricity. This law describes
the electric field due to electric charges, and
can be used to derive Coulomb's law.
37
Maxwell’s equations and electromagnetic waves
• 2. Gauss's law for magnetism. According to this law,
magnetic field lines are continuous and without
end, and thus there are no isolated magnetic poles.
• 3. Ampere's law. Maxwell extended this law to
describe the production of magnetic fields not only
by electric currents but by changing electric fields as
well.
• 4. Faraday's law of induction. This law describes
the production of electric fields as a result of
changing magnetic fields.
38
Maxwell’s equations and electromagnetic
waves
• It was Faraday who introduced the concepts of fields and
of lines of force to describe the interaction of objects
separated in space. This formulation still remains a
powerful way to describe electric, magnetic, and other
fields.
• But Maxwell's precise mathematical description of these
fields, and their reality, as demonstrated by many
experiments, remains an important part of our
understanding of electromagnetism.
• Today Maxwell's equations are considered the foundation
of our understanding of electromagnetism, equal in
importance to Newton's laws of motion in mechanics.
39
Maxwell’s equations and electromagnetic
waves
• It was Faraday who introduced the concepts of fields and
of lines of force to describe the interaction of objects
separated in space. This formulation still remains a
powerful way to describe electric, magnetic, and other
fields.
• But Maxwell's precise mathematical description of these
fields, and their reality, as demonstrated by many
experiments, remains an important part of our
understanding of electromagnetism.
• Today Maxwell's equations are considered the foundation
of our understanding of electromagnetism, equal in
importance to Newton's laws of motion in mechanics.
40
Maxwell’s equations and electromagnetic
waves.
The appearance of the
electric and magnetic
fields in a plane
electromagnetic wave.
Each field varies
sinusoidally with space
and time. The speed of
the wave is c, the
speed of light.
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