Lecture 4

Writing Chapter 3. Research

Methodology
GRACE B. VERIDIANO, Ph.D.
Associate Professor
Research Process

 Planning Phase
Choose a problem
Review literatures
Choose appropriate method / design
Write proposal

 Implementation Phase
Collect Data
Analyze Data
Write report
 Research Methodology

• The purpose of this section is

to identify and justify the
methodology of the research.
• The choice of methodology
depends on the variables of the
study.
 Topics Covered

[Link] of terms
[Link] Methods and their designs
[Link] Population, Sampling and sampling
techniques
[Link] instrument and construction
[Link] and collection of data
[Link] statistical techniques
[Link] Organization
[Link] presentation
[Link] analysis and presentation
1. Definition of Terms
 Method of Research – refers to how the research is to
be undertaken or carried out.
It is an operational framework within which the facts are
placed so that their meaning will be seen more clearly
 Research design is the plan, structure, and strategy of
investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions
and to control variance.

The plan is the overall scheme or program of the research. It

includes an outline of what the investigator will do, from writing the
hypotheses and their operational investigations to the final analysis of
data.
 The structure of the research is more specific.
It provides the outline, the scheme, the paradigm of the
operation of the variables, measurement and treatment of data.
When we draw diagrams that outline the variables and their
relation and juxtaposition, we build structural schemes for
accomplishing operational research purposes.
It includes the theoretical and conceptual frameworks

 The strategy is also more specific than plan.

It includes the methods to be used to gather and analyze the
data.
It implies how the research objectives will be reached and how
the problems encountered in the research will be tackled.
Purpose of Research Design

 To provide answers to research questions.

Designs that are carefully worked out yield dependable and valid answers
to the research questions epitomized by the hypotheses.
This is accomplish by setting up the framework for “adequate” tests of
the relations among variables.
The research design tell us:
 what observation to make
 how to make them, and
 how to analyze the quantitative representations of the observations.
An adequate design also outlines possible conclusions to be drawn from
the statistical analysis.
2. Research Methods and Designs
 Historical Research
 Involves critical investigation of events, developments, and experiences
of the past, the careful weighing of evidence of the validity of sources of
information on the past, and the interpretation of weighed evidence
(Kerlinger, 1972).
 The focus of the subject matter is the past, on an individual, an idea, a
movement, or an institution. e.g. event - the 1st EDSA revolution;
individual – Marcos; idea – people participation
 2 Categories of Historical Data
Primary Sources – eyewitness account or reported by a participant of the
event. Include Recorded Documents, films, pictures, recordings, etc.; Remains or
Relics – fossils, skeletons, tools, etc.; Oral Testimony – spoken account of a
witness obtained thru interview
Secondary Sources – include reports of a person who relates the testimony of
an actual witness or participant in an event. The writer of the secondary source
was not around when the event happened.
Descriptive or Exploratory
Research
 Concerned with describing the characteristics of the population.
 The major emphasis is on discovery of ideas and insights
 It tries to find out the association of certain characteristics of the
population to a certain phenomena; e.g. ethnic population and
population control; MIS and academic performance
 It deals with the relationship between variables, the testing of
hypothesis, and the development of generalizations, principles, or
theories that have universal validity )Best and Kahn, 1988)
 Types of descriptive research: Qualitative methods such as Case Study,
Content Analysis, Ethnographic Studies. In the quantitative method or
rationalistic paradigm, it includes Normative Survey studies such as
cross sectional and longitudinal studies
Qualitative Research Designs
 Case Study – an in-depth investigation of a single person, an
institution, or a group such as students, teachers, or administrators.
It tries to understand the “what” and the why” of the situation
It probes deeply and analyses interactions between the factors that explain
present status , e.g. change or growth. It is a longitudinal approach showing
development over a period of time.
 Characteristics of a Case Study
Intensive study of a social unit
Observation is the primary technique of gathering information
It examines a small number of units but the number of variables studies for the
units is large
It may be superior to experimental or survey study when data about non-verbal
behavior is being collected
 Qualitative Research Designs
 Content Analysis – a method which analyses the content / “what
is said” by a document
Documents can include records, reports, newspapers, letters, diaries,
literatures, compositions, court decisions, pictures, files, cartoons, etc.
It is an objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest
content of a text.
Current documents and issues are the focus, and the analysis is
concerned with the explanation of the status of some phenomenon at a
particular time or its development over a period of time.
Its purpose is adding knowledge to fields of inquiry, and in explaining
certain social event.
It generates inferences say on the state of the art or researches in some
disciplines; or analysis of legal documents in relation to education.
 Qualitative Research Designs
 Ethnographic Research (ER) – also known as cultural anthropology, ER is a
method of field study observation that became popular in the 19th century.
The emphasis is on documenting or portraying the everyday experiences of
individuals by observing and interviewing them, and continual, ongoing participant
observation of a situation.
It consist of participant observation, conversation, and use of informants to study the
cultural characteristics of a particular society, group, institution, setting or situation
(Best and Kahn, 1998)
It involves establishing rapport in the community, learning to act so that people go
about their business as usual when you show up, and removing yourself from cultural
immersion so you can intellectualize what you have learned, put it into perspective,
and write about it convincingly.
Best applied to Psychology and Education, Anthropology and Sociology
Limitations: highly dependent on researcher’s observations and bias; no way to check
validity of researcher’s conclusions.
 Quantitative Research
 Survey Research – studies large and small populations (or
universe) by selecting and studying samples chosen from the
population to discover the relative incidence, distribution and
interrelations of sociological and psychological variables (Kerlinger,
1972)
It links populations and samples; where you do accurate assessment of
the characteristics of a population of people by getting samples from the
population as study subjects
The Social nature of survey research studies sociological facts like sex,
income, political and religious affiliations, socio-economic status,
education, age, occupation, race, etc.
Psychological nature includes opinions and attitudes and its influence on
behavior; on what people think and do
 Tow types of survey: cross sectional and longitudinal survey
 Quantitative Research
 Cross-sectional survey – collects information from a sample that has been
drawn from a pre-determined population at one point in time.
Example: Survey on the study habits of MIS at MPCF
Survey on participation of MPCF students in school and accredited organization activities
Survey on family situations of Seafarers
 Longitudinal survey – collects information from the same population at
different points in time in order to study the changes over time.
 Longitudinal designs:
Trend study – where different samples from the same population are surveyed at
different points in time. E.g. Growth of GDP and GNP in the country; Trends in the
implementation of socialized tuition fees
Cohort Study – where a specific population is followed over a period of time. E.g. Turn-
over of graduates after K-12 implementation
Panel study - where a sample is selected right at the beginning of the study and surveys
the same individuals at different period of time during the course of study. E.g
Effectiveness of education graduates in teaching
 Correlation Research
 Is Involves the collection of two or more sets of data from a group of subjects with
the attempt to determine the subsequent relationship between two sets of data
 The purpose is to clarify our understanding of important phenomena through the
identification of relationships among variable.
 Correlation studies may not establish cause and effect relationship among variables
but has a prediction function, it predicts behavior of dependent variable
 It studies the degree of relationship that exist between two or more variables, it is
uni-directional
 Relationships among variables are best tested using multivariate analysis such as
regression analysis, discriminant analysis, and logistic regression analysis
 E.g. if high school grade can be used to predict college grades; administrative
experience and managerial effectiveness; study habits and academic performance;
teacher’s competence and students’class performance
 Ex-Post Facto Research
 A systematic empirical inquiry where the researcher has no direct control of
the independent variables because their manifestations have already
occurred or because they are inherently not manipulable.
 Inferences about relations among variables are made without direct
intervention to the independent and dependent variables since the study is
done after the fact.
 Limitations of the design
The independent variables cannot be manipulated since the events have already
occurred
Subjects cannot be randomly assigned to treatment groups
Causes are often multiple and complex, not single and simple
 Examples: Effect of organizational climate on students’ behavior; Effects of
GPA on earnings of graduates
 Evaluation Research
 It judges the worth, merit or value of an existing program
 It focus primarily on results of program effectiveness and helps in
making decisions for improving, maintaining, rejecting or replacing the
focus of evaluation to make it more effective and efficient.
 It attempts to answer the ff. questions:
What are the goals and objectives of the program being evaluated?
What are the intended results of the program?
Are the intended results achieved?
Are there other unintended results/ were they positive or negative?
Are the results sufficient to warrant continuation of the program?
 Two kind of evaluation: Formative and Summative Evaluation
 Formative and Summative
 Evaluation
Formative Evaluation – carried out at the time when the program
is being developed;
it is an ongoing process.
The purpose is to keep improving the program by modifying it on the basis
of collected data
Done by those involved in program implementation
 Summative Evaluation – conducted after a program is developed.
The purpose is to determine the worth of the program
It helps the user in comparing the worth of the program with other
competing programs, and finally to take decision to accept of reject similar
program
It focuses on the generality of the program to come out with decision on
what to do with the program
 Experimental Research
 The most powerful method in investigating relationships between variables
 Usually conducted in laboratory
 2 basic conditions required:
At least two conditions or methods are compared to assess the effects of the condition
or treatment (independent variable). Experimental and Control groups
The independent variable is directly manipulated by the researcher
 Advantages of Experimental Research:
Establishing causality – best method in establishing causal link
Control – it offers ultimate control, less chance of error caused by extraneous factors
Longitudinal analysis – studies change over time
 Disadvantages: Artificial environment, experimenter effect, lack of control of IV
in a natural setting and sample size is usually small
Field Experiment
 Research is conducted in a realistic situation in which
one or more IVs are manipulated by the experimenter
under carefully controlled conditions as the situation
will permit
 Field studies must operate with less control, which is a
severe handicap to the researcher
 The sampling demanded of the population is quite big,
or the whole population may be necessary to the
conduct of the study, hence less control of the
situation due to the presence of other extraneous
variables.
 Quasi-experimental Research

1. Also known as semi-experimental research typically

involves applied settings where it is not possible to
control all the relevant variables but only some of
them.
2. The researcher gets close to the true experimental
rigor as conditions allow
 By carefully qualifying the important exceptions and
limitations.
3. This research is characterized by methods of
practical control based on a careful identification of
factors influencing both internal and external validity.
Quasi-experimental Research
4. The strength of the research design is that it allows
for study of very strong variables that cannot be
manipulated or controlled by the experimenter.
5. Quasi-experimental designs also tend to have very
high external validity.
6. The weaknesses of the design have to do with the
lack of control over the independent variable and
the absence of random assignment of subjects.
7. It lacks random assignment of respondents to
experimental treatments, so that comparison
between treatments have to be done with groups
that are not equivalent.
Some data collection tools –
For self study
 Focused Group Discussion
 Key Informant Technique
 Participatory Rapid Appraisal
 Rapid Rural Appraisal
 TOP – Technology of Participation
 SWOT – Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats analysis
 Delphi Technique
 Transect Walk
 Use of Geographic Positioning System for GIS
 Venn Diagram
 Problem Tree Analysis
 Electronic / TV survey
 3. Study Population and
Sampling
 Study Population – refers to the individuals in a class, or group or
universe which is the subject of your study; e.g. MPCF Students,
Faculty, Maritime Industry Scholars, Constituents in Coastal
Communities, Families of Seafarers
This is designated by N
 Samples – composed of a part of the whole population; a
representative of the population; it is designated by small n.
Example:
Your population is MPCF students
Your samples will consist of randomly selected MarE and MT students
 Statistics – a measured value based on sample data or numbers
computed from a sample, what the investigators know
 Parameter – a population value inferred from a statistics, data that
researchers want to know
 Purpose of Sampling from a
Population
Economy – if data are secured from a fraction of a
population, expenses would be less
 Timeliness – data can be collected and summarized
more quickly with a sample than with the total
population
 Large size of many population – relying on sampling may
have more scope and flexibility than using a sample
instead of the entire population
 Accuracy – a sample may be more accurate that the
population; a careless population survey can provide less
reliable information than a carefully obtained sample
Kinds of Samples
 Probability Sampling – selection of each
respondent is known
 Non-probability sampling – uses
whatever subjects are available rather
than following a specific selection
process; not advisable
 Probability Sampling Techniques
 Random Sampling – a method of selecting samples from a
population where each member has an equal chance of being
selected. This can be done by assigning numbers to the
members of the population and selecting random samples
using the table of random numbers or drawing of lots
 Purposive Sampling – characterized by the use of judgement
and a deliberate effort to obtain representative samples by
including presumably typical areas or groups in the sample.
The strategy is to pick cases that are judged to be typical of
the population where one is interested in assuming that errors
of judgement in the selection will counterbalance each other.
Probability Sampling Techniques
 Systematic Sampling with Random Start – here, instead of using
the table of random numbers, a list of the population is used, starting
with a randomly selected case among the first 10 cases.
 Advantages:
Ease in sampling
Sample is spread out evenly over the population
 Steps
Draw a random start from a number of 1-10, e.g. 6
If 5% of the population of 500 is desired, it means that 1 in 20 persons will be
selected as sample so with 500 N, multiply 500 by 5%, your n is 25
From the 6th respondent, count 20, every 20th will serve as your sample.
Probability Sampling Techniques
 Cluster Sampling – dividing larger number of groups into
clusters, then do sampling in each cluster. Ex. MPCF students.
Your clusters are the students in each course
After determining the cluster, do simple random sampling per cluster
 Stratified Random Sampling – the population is divided into
subpopulations. These subpopulations are called strata (i.e. sex,
age, income, etc.). When the strata have been determined, a
sample is drawn from each, the drawings made independently in
different strata.
If a random sampling is taken from each stratum, the procedure is
called stratified random sampling. It increase precision
 Determining Sample Size
 Use large samples as much as possible; the bigger the sample, the lesser the
magnitude of sampling error and the greater likelihood that the sample is
representative of the population
 Survey studies should have larger samples that are needed in in experimental studies
 When samples are to be subdivided into smaller groups to be compared, researchers
should initially select large enough samples so that the subgroups are of adequate size
for their purpose
 In studies using mailed questionnaire, a large initial sample should be selected since
retrieval is as low as 20-30%
 The rule of thumb in determining sample size: the bigger the population, the smaller
the percentage of samples, the smaller the population, the bigger percentage of
samples is taken. But sample size should not be less than 30 to achieve normal curve.
 Subject availability and cost factors are legitimate considerations in determining
appropriate sample size
4. Instrumentation – Developing
the Measuring Instrument
 Measuring instruments – are tools for data collection
It is a device used to quantify and record information that is important to a
research study
Instruments may come in the form of observation, interview, questionnaire or
through unobtrusive method
 Two classes of Instruments
Standardized instruments – carefully developed, with highly refined
measurement procedures, and has been designed for administration under
carefully prescribed conditions for some specific purpose
Researcher – developed instruments
Common Characteristics of
Standardized Instruments
 They have well defined instrument items with test administration having
the same procedures and time limits
 Procedures for scoring have been carefully prescribed
 Normative data (scores obtained from the administration to other
groups) have been prepared
 They include estimates of validity and reliability that are based upon
said experimental research
 They have been published and marketed by public and private
enterprises
 Ex. Personality test, achievement test, interest test, intelligence test,
aptitude test
Types of Researcher – Made
Instrument
 Interview schedule – a written instrument that is used by the interviewer to
guide the asking of questions.
It also provides a means for recording the responses made to questions
It can be used to gather factual information, preferences and opinions.
 Observation Form – a written form used by the researcher which focuses on the
occurrence of a certain behavior or objectives. The instrument likewise provides
a means for recording the observation.
 Document Analysis Form – a written form which serves as guide to the
researcher is his analysis of printed materials.
It provides a means for recording the findings of the review process which can
summarized later
Primarily used in historical and descriptive research specially context analysis, case
studies and ethnography
 Questionnaire – a written instrument that contains a series of questions where
individuals respond. It can be self administered, mailed. Used to gather factual
information.
 Scales of Measurement
 It is one of the necessary components in developing a research instrument
 4 Scales of Measurement
Nominal – makes no assumption whatsoever about the values assigned to the data. Ex.
Gender: 1- male, 2- female
Ordinal – data are assigned to the relative position of variables with respect to
characteristics with no implications as to the distance between positions. Ex. Income – low,
average, high. Each category has a unique position with respect to the other categories,
where one is lower that the others, and others are higher in value, however the distance
between categories are not known.
Interval – refer to measure which determines the distance between two or more variables in
terms of equal intervals. The purpose is to determine distance of things or individuals on a
particular characteristics. Ex. Metric scale, thermometer. There is no true zero value.
Ratio – has the characteristics of all measures plus an absolute zero value. It is
characterized by the fact that equality of ratios as well as equality of intervals may be
determined. Example: test scores
Questionnaire Construction
 Prior to questionnaire construction, check whether the
operational definitions matched the theoretical concepts
and that the samples match the population from which
it was drawn
 6 steps in questionnaire construction:
Determining questionnaire content
Determining type of questionnaire to use
Organizing and assembling the items
Pre-testing the questionnaire
Evaluating the research instrument
Finalization of the instrument
a. Determining questionnaire content
 Consider relevance in 3 facets:
Relevance of the study’s goals
Relevance of questions to the goals of the study
Relevance of the questions to the individual respondent
 The operational definition of the variables should be evident in
the content of the questionnaire
 Prepare an outline indicating the content sequence of the
questions / items as they should appear in the questionnaire
 Ex. Part 1 – Personal profile of respondents; Part II – items about
the Independent Variable; Part III – items about the Dependent
Variable
 b. Type of questionnaire to be used

 The appropriate form depends on the following:

mode of administration,
the subject matter,
the sample respondents, and
the kind of analysis and interpretation intended
 Types of written instruments
Dichotomous response items – offer the respondents 2 alternatives to choose from i.e Yes or
No; True or false
Multiple choice items provide several alternatives, ex. Educational attainment, occupation
Checklist, ex. HH appliances
Rating scales – it is where the respondent evaluates a particular product, certain attitudes,
and other characteristics. Ex. Numerical: scales of 1-5, graphics – ex. The teacher maintains
classroom disciple (never, seldom, occasionally, frequently, always); forced choice rating scale,
ex. Indicate the characteristics that best describes your teacher ( has sense of humor, shares
enthusiasm, uses time efficiently, maintains classroom discipline
Ranking – allows researcher to determine response of relative importance
ex. Rank in the order of priority the concerns which should be attended by the school administration

_____ tardiness of some faculty _____ poor ventilation of classrooms

_____ dirty comfort rooms _____ alcoholism among students
_____ employability of graduates _____ staff development
 Types of written instruments
 Attitude Scales – measure the attitudes of respondents on certain issues. The attitude
items intend to capture empirically the essential meaning of the issue at hand
The basic assumption is that it is possible to discover attitudes by asking individuals to respond to a
series of statements of preference
2 types of scales used
 Semantic Differential – a method of observing and measuring the psychological meaning of concepts where
the respondent indicates an attitude or opinion between two extreme choices. It uses bipolar objectives on a
seven-point scale. This was developed by Osgood, Suci and Tannenbaum in 1957.
 Ex. From Good – bad, healthy to unhealthy, clean to dirty
 Likert Scale – made up of a series of opinion statements about some issues. A person’s attitude is measured
by asking the respondents to indicate extent of agreement or disagreement to a statement. It is a subject-
centered or person-centered approach to scaling since only subjects (or persons) receive scale score.
 Ex. I feel I am an asset to MPCF – Strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree, unable to answer
 Excellent, adequate, barely adequate, inadequate, terrible, unable to answer
 Excellent, very good, good, poor, bad, unable to answer
 Often, sometimes, almost never
 c. Organizing and Assembling of

Items
The appearance of the questionnaire determines the quality of its answerability by the
respondents
 Some Considerations:
1. Direction – should be clear and complete so as not to confuse the respondent
 Make them brief
 Set off directions with heavy, distinctive lettering
2. Some guide in questionnaire construction
 Do not use double negatives
 Check all meanings of words used
 Avoid the use of concept words
 Use familiar words
 Underline words to be emphasized
 Use punctuation to a minimum
 There must be a mixture of easy, moderate, difficult and very difficult items
 Some guide in questionnaire construction
Avoid using a scale with more than 10 steps
Clear, short phrasing of items, not more that 20 words per item
Avoid double barreled questions
Avoid leading questions and loaded words
Avoid embarrassing questions
It test results will be fed to a computer, format the answer
sheet such that it s easy to transfer into the coding sheet
If items are translated from English to dialect, print both
versions for additional clarity to bilingual respondents
Self-administered questionnaires assume that respondents are
literate and possess comparable levels of comprehension
 Consider the ordering of items
Have a smooth flow of sequence which is easy for the
respondents to follow
The preliminary items of the instrument should be easily
answerable and should relate directly to the purpose of the
study
Keep questionnaire to a minimum length to motivate
respondents to answer the questions
Place sensitive and open-ended questions at the last part of the
instrument
d. Pre-testing the questionnaire
 Pre-test is a try-out of the questionnaire to see how it
works or whether change is necessary before the start
of a full scale study
 Some guidelines in pre-testing of questionnaire:
It is necessary to ask for the name of the respondent during
pre-testing
If respondent’s literacy or facility with the written language will
interfere, the test must be administered by an interviewer
After pre-testing, ask the respondents about their reactions on
unclear questions
Take note of any questions asked by the respondents
e. Evaluating research instrument
 This is important so that confidence is placed on the results
obtained and that conclusions drawn are correct.
 Evaluation fo instrument upgrades its quality
 Reliability and validity of the instruments must be ensured in the
evaluation process.
Reliability – refers to the extent to which an experiment, test or
any measuring procedure yield the same results on repeated
trials. It’s the accuracy or precision of a measuring instrument
Validity – refers to the degree to which a particular instrument
is useful in measuring that which it is designed to measure. If an
instrument produces an accurate assessment of the variable it is
designed to measure, the instrument is valid.
f. Finalization of the questionnaire

 Inspect all elements of the instrument –

Content
Form
Sequence of questions
Spacing, arrangement and appearance of the
material
 Data Collection
 It bridge the gap between what the researcher has conceptualized and what he
hopes to come out with
 Remember that when collecting data, you are asking favor from the respondent,
thus the respondent has no obligation to the researcher
 Data collection involves planning, as follows;
Prepare for data collection. Reproduce enough number of the instrument for the target
number of respondents. Interviewers should be physically and mentally prepared.
Restrict data collection to what is necessary to meet the requirements in the research
design and in testing hypothesis
Data collection requires timing , consider availability of the respondent.
Establish rapport. Deliver the letter personally when permission is sought.
Have a tight monitoring of and control in the administration of questionnaire. Be tactful in
answering questions regarding the study.
Prepare for the unexpected , embarrassment, negative attitudes and criticism
 Tips in Data Collection Through
Interview
Be friendly and formal at the same time professional
 Be an interested and attentive listener
 Be neutral with respect to the subject matter
 Be alert to expressions and gestures used by the respondent. These signs may
serve as signals that the respondent is not at-ease
 As an interviewer, be at ease as the interview approach will be passed on to
the respondent
 Advantages of interview
Higher response rate, less instance of question left unanswered, greater flexibility,
allows probing, greater opportunity to appraise validity of response
 Disadvantages
Requires great skill in interviewing, requires highly reactive interviewer- interviewee
interactions, it is expensive and time consuming
 Data Collection thru Questionnaire
 Prepare a cover letter containing the following:
The purpose of the study and what the data will be used for
Protection of the respondent, how privacy and confidentiality will be treated
Endorsement of the study by university of agency head
Legitimacy of the researcher. Identify yourself by name and position
Opportunities for debriefing; if respondents can obtain results of the study at some
later date, they should be told
Request for cooperation. The letter must include an appeal for the respondent’s
help
Special instructions. The respondent should be informed of other matters
regarding the study.
 Advantages: economical, impersonal, anonymity, makes respondent feel
more free
 Disadvantages: inflexible, low response rate, difficult to avoid unanswered
items, does not allow probing
Workshop and Assignments
 Write Chapter 3 of your proposal
 Be ready to present your proposals on August 5 with your
chosen advisers/ mentors
 Read on the following topics and be ready to report on Aug. 19
Group 1 and 2 – Data processing
Group 3 and 4 - Analysis and interpretation of data including statistical
tools
Group 5 and 6 – Writing research report
Group 7 - Different reports used by Seafarers onboard ships