In unit 4 we will learn about

Waves and Optics.

Waves are everywhere in

nature – sound waves, visible
light waves, earthquakes,
water waves, microwaves,
Mexican waves…

Understanding optics is
important in use of lenses – for
sight, cameras, entertainment
and many other applications.
Waves & Optics
What do you know?

About waves?

About optics?
Key words: waves, energy transfer, transverse,
longitudinal, frequency, speed, wavelength,
amplitude.

By the end of this lesson you will be able to:

State that a wave transfers energy.
Use the following terms correctly in context:
wave,
frequency, wavelength, speed, amplitude,
period.
State the difference between a longitudinal
wave
and a transverse wave, and give an example of
each.
Waves & Energy Transfer

Waves transfer energy.

The energy transferred by waves

can be
considerable!
 Properties of Waves
What is meant by the axis of a
wave? The axis is the line
running
through the middle of
the
wave pattern.
What is meant by the crest
of the wave?
The crest is the top
part
of the wave
…and the trough?

The trough is the

bottom
part of the wave.
What is the amplitude of
the wave?
The amplitude is the
distance from the axis
to
the crest
or from axis to
trough.
Definition of
Wavelength?
The wavelength is the
distance after which
the
wave pattern repeats
itself
– the distance between
two
identical points on
the wave
 Wavelength is given

the symbol λ
pronounced lambda.

[Link]
lsps07/sci/phys/energy/wavelength/assets
/lsps07_int_wavelength/lsps07_int_wavele
ngth_swf.html
 Frequency
The frequency of the wave is the
number
of waves each second.

It is measured in hertz (Hz)

which just
means “per second”.
[Link]
[Link]
ergy/frequency/assets/lsps07_int_frequency/lsps07_int_freq
uency_swf.html
 Frequency
Calculate the frequency of each of
the
following waves:

125 waves passing a point in 10

seconds.
16 waves passing a point in 24
seconds.
30 waves passing a point in 1 minute.
 Period

The period of a wave is the time

taken
for one complete wave to pass a
point.

It is measured in seconds (s).

 Frequency & Period

The link between the frequency and

period of a wave

1
f 
T
 Frequency & Period

Rearranging

1
T
f
 Homework for next
lesson
Learn:
transverse and longitudinal waves
properties of waves
- Axis
- Crest
- Trough
- Amplitude
- Wavelength
- Frequency
- Period
Key words: electromagnetic spectrum,
wavelength, frequency

By the end of this lesson you will be able to:

State in order of wavelength, the members of
the
electromagnetic spectrum: gamma rays, X-
rays,
ultraviolet, visible light, infrared,
microwaves ,
TV and radio.
State that radio and television signals
are
transmitted through air at 300000000 m/s and
that
light is also transmitted at this speed.
What do you know?

About waves?

About light?

About the
electromagnetic
 Myth or Reality?

Visible light is
the only type of
light
 What is
radiation?
Where does light come
from?
 What is a light wave?
Light is a disturbance of electric and
magnetic fields that travels in the
form
of a wave.

Like all waves it can be described as

having peaks, troughs, frequency,
wavelength, amplitude and it transfers
energy.
 What is the
electromagnetic
spectrum?
The electromagnetic
spectrum consists of all
the different wavelengths
of electromagnetic
radiation, including
light, radio waves, and
X-rays.

All travel at
 Radio Waves
The longest wavelength and lowest
frequency.

Radio waves are longer than 1 mm.

Radio wavelengths are found

everywhere: in the background
radiation of the universe, in
interstellar clouds, and in the
cool
remnants of supernova explosions.
 Radio Waves
Radio stations use radio wavelengths
(10 cm – 1000 m) of electromagnetic
radiation to send signals that our
radios then translate into sound.

These wavelengths are typically 1 m

long in the FM band.
 Radio Waves

Radio stations transmit em

radiation,
not sound. The radio station
encodes
a pattern on the em radiation it
transmits, and then our radios
receive the em radiation, decode
the pattern and translate the
pattern into sound.
Microwaves 0.1 – 10 c

Basis of almost
all space
Infrared 0.1 cm to 0.00007
cm

Heat!
Infrared 0.1 cm to 0.00007
cm

Infrared
wavelengths
Heat!
are about
same size
as a single
[Link]
org/resources/ess05/sci/es
s/earthsys/irgallery/asset bacteria.
s/ess05_int_irgallery/ess0
5_int_irgallery_swf.html
 Visible Light

Visible light covers the range of

wavelengths from 400 to 700 nm.

Our eyes are sensitive only to

this
small portion of the
electromagnetic
spectrum.
 Visible Light

The Sun emits most of its

radiation in the visible range, which
our
eyes perceive as the colours of the
rainbow.
Ultraviole
t
Ultraviolet radiation
has wavelengths of
10 to 310 nm (about
the
size of a virus).

Young, hot stars

produce a lot of
ultraviolet light and
bathe interstellar
space with this
energetic light.
Ultraviolet
 X-rays
X-rays range in
wavelength from 0.01
to
10 nm (about the size
of
an atom).

They are generated,

for
example, by super
heated gas from
exploding stars and
quasars, where
temperatures are near
a million to ten
million degrees.
Gamma rays
Gamma rays have the
shortest wavelengths,
of less than 0.01 nm
(about the size of an
atomic nucleus).

This is the highest

frequency and most
energetic region of
the
em spectrum.
Gamma rays can result
from nuclear reactions
taking place in
objects
such as pulsars,
quasars,
and black holes.
Low frequency
Long wavelength

Rabbits Radio
Mambo Microwaves
In Infrared
Very Visible Light
Unusual UV
eXpensiv X-rays
e Gamma Rays
Gardens
High frequency
Short wavelength

All e-m waves travel at the speed of light!

What have you learned
today?
Key words: speed of sound, distance,
speed,
time
By the end of this lesson you will be
able to:
Describe a method of measuring the
speed of sound in air, using the
relationship between distance, time
and speed.
describe how sound is produced
describe sound as a wave which
transfers
energy, explaining what is meant by the
Key words: frequency, wavelength, speed,
amplitude, period

By the end of this lesson you will be able

to:
Carry out calculations involving the
relationship
between distance, time and speed in
problems on water waves, sound waves, radio
waves and light waves.
Carry out calculations involving the
relationship
between speed, wavelength and frequency
for waves.
What do we know
about sound?
 Sound

How does sound

travel?

How fast does sound

travel?
 Sound Vibrations
The aim of this activity is to show how
sound energy is produced.

Think!
How is sound produced by the tuning fork?
How does changing the length of the tuning
fork affect the sound produced?
Look at the frequencies of the tuning forks.
As the frequency increases, how does the
pitch change?
 Energy Transfer
The aim of this activity is to show how
sound energy is transferred.

Signal generator Loudspeaker

Think!

What is happening to the candle flame?

What is moving the flame?

Can you explain how sound energy is

transferred?
 How fast does sound
travel?
We can use sound switches and an
electronic timer to measure the speed of
sound.

What two things do we need to measure to

find the speed of sound?

• the distance travelled.

• the time taken.
 How fast does sound
travel?
Why is an electronic timer used
when
measuring the speed of sound?
Measuring Average Speed

distance
speed
time
Measure the time taken for sound to
travel from one microphone to the
other.
Repeat your measurements to improve
reliability.
microphone

Electronic timer

metre stick

metal plate hammer

Oscilloscope Patterns and
Frequency

Think!
How is sound produced by the loudspeaker?
At very low frequency, what do you observe?
As frequency increases, what happens to the
pitch of the note?
What is the lowest frequency you can hear?
And the highest?
 Octaves and Frequency

Think!
Look at the signals produced for different
instruments and different notes.
As the pitch increases, what do you notice
about the number of waves on the screen?
What is happening to the frequency?
Look at two notes an octave apart. What
happens to the number of waves on the
screen. What does this tell you about
frequency?
Oscilloscope Patterns and
Loudness

Think!

As the sound becomes louder, what do you

expect to happen to the oscilloscope trace?

Does loudness affect the frequency of the

signal?
 What can sound travel
through?

What do we need for sound to

travel?

A solid, liquid or a gas. Sound

can’t travel
through space because it is a
vacuum.
 What can sound travel
through?
When the air was pumped out of the
container….

it was no longer possible to hear

the bell
ringing.

Virtual Int 1 Sound & Music -> Using Sound -> Vacuum
 Loudness of Sound
We measure the loudness of sound in
decibels – dB.

Spending too long listening to loud

sounds
can permanently damage your hearing.

[Link]
[Link]
 Hearing Damage in the
Workplace
If you are regularly exposed
to noise at 80dB or above,
your employer must carry out
risk assessment.

If 85dB or above, they must

provide protection.

[Link]
Max recommended length of
exposure 85 dB 8 hours
88 dB 4 hours
91 dB 2 hours
94 dB 1 hours
97 dB 30 minutes
100 dB 15 minutes
103 dB 7.75 minutes
106 dB 3.75 minutes

How big is 1dB sound file

[Link]
Date Accessed 27/03/2008
 Ultrasound
What is the normal range of human
hearing?

20 Hz – 20000 Hz (or 20 kHz).

What is ultrasound?

Ultrasound is sound above 20000 Hz.

 Imaging with Ultrasound

Medical ultrasound used for imaging

a
foetus is between 1 and 20 MHz
(10000000 and 20000000 Hz!)

How is ultrasound used for imaging?

[Link]
Imaging with Ultrasound
[Link]

A handheld transducer is held on

the
stomach. This changes electrical
energy
to sound energy which is
transmitted in
waves into the body.
Imaging with Ultrasound

The waves are reflected off the boundaries

between materials which have different
sound
properties (e.g. the amniotic fluid and
the
foetus). The transducer also acts as a
receiver
– detecting the echo and turning sound
into an
electrical signal.
Imaging with Ultrasound

By recording the time taken for the

echo
to be detected, and the intensities
of the
echoes, and using the speed of sound
in
tissue, a computer can build up a
detailed
image of the foetus.
Imaging with Ultrasound
The skin is covered in jelly during the
ultrasound procedure. Why is this?

Good contact is important. Otherwise

the
ultrasound waves will simply bounce off
the outer skin and no image will be
obtained. It makes movement of the
transducer easier. It ensures a clear
picture is obtained.
Imaging with Ultrasound
Why is ultrasound used instead of
X-rays?

Ultrasound causes no harmful

effects to
the foetus. It is low power so
can be used
safely to image the foetus.
 Other Uses of
Ultrasound
Doppler ultrasound is a newer
technique
which can be used to measure blood
flow.

Ultrasound can also be used to break

up
kidney stones – faster and safer than
surgical removal.
 Using Sonar
SOund NAvigation and Ranging

Used for underwater ranging

–
first patented in 1913 –
prompted by Titanic
disaster.
 Using Sonar

How does Sonar work?

What is it used for?

Sonar Use
 Radio Communication

What are radio (and TV) waves?

They are a type of electromagnetic radia

that travel through air at

3 x 108 m/s.
Each radio station broadcasts with
a
frequency or
different
wavelength – remember the
speed is always the same.

The frequency of radio waves is

much
higher than the frequency of sound
waves.
Imagine a wave where 2 waves pass a
point in 1 second.

numberof wavesproduced
frequency
time takenin seconds
frequency f = 2 Hz.
amplitude

10

0.1 0.2
distance (m)
What is the length of the wave produced
in this time?

2 waves in 1 second -> 2 wavelengths.

2 wavelengths = 2 x 0.1 = 0.2 m

So two waves are produced in 1 s.

That is 0.2 m in 1 s.
This links distance and time which gives
us…..
amplitude

speed
10

0.1 0.2 distance

(m)
 Calculating Wave Speed
There are two formulae which can be
used
to calculate wave speed.

Speed is a distance in a given time.

distance
speed
time
Calculating Wave Speed
speed = frequency x wavelength
speed in
m/s

v = fλ wavelength
in metres
frequency in
Hz
 How fast is a radio
or TV wave?
Radio and TV signals are part
of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

This means they travel at the

speed of
light which is 3 x 108 m/s.
Key words: reflection, angle of
incidence,
angle of reflection, light rays

By the end of this lesson you will be able to:

State that light can be reflected.
Use the terms angle of incidence,
angle
of reflection and normal when a ray of
light is reflected from a plane mirror.
State the principle of reversibility
of a
ray path.
 Reflection of Light
Watch the demonstration with the laser optics kit.

What is meant by the normal?

What is meant by the angle of incidence?

What is meant by the angle of reflection?

What do you notice about the angles of incidence

and
reflection? How do they compare?
Virtual Int 2 Physics -> Waves & Optics -> Reflection -> Reflection from a Plane Mirror
 The normal, angle of
incidence and angle of
reflection
Complete the sentences:

The normal is

The angle of incidence is

The angle of reflection is

 Reflection of Light
The normal is at a
Law of Reflection right angle (90º)
to the surface.

Θi ΘR

angle of incidence = angle of

reflection
Flash animation - reflection
 Reversibility of Rays
The normal is at a
Law of Reflection right angle (90º)
to the surface.
N
I
R

ΘR Θi

angle of incidence = angle of

reflection
Flash animation - reflection
What have you learned?
Key words: refraction, incidence, normal

By the end of this lesson you will be able to:

State what is meant by the refraction
of
light.
Use the terms angle of incidence,
angle
of refraction and normal.
Draw diagrams to show the change of
direction as light passes from air to
glass
and glass to air.
 Refraction

[Link]
 Rays of Light
In any material (air, glass,
water) light will
travel in a straight line.

We represent light using ray

diagrams.
 Drawing Light Rays
We represent light using ray
diagrams.

What two things must you remember

when drawing light rays?
 Refraction of Light
We saw that light can be reflected from
a flat surface.

When light passes from one material to

another it changes speed. This change
in
speed can cause it to change
direction.
We call this refraction.
 Refraction of Light – Air
to Glass
Watch the demonstration with the laser optics kit.

What is meant by the normal?

What is meant by the angle of incidence?

What is meant by the angle of refraction?

What do you notice about the angles of incidence
and
refraction? How do they compare?

Virtual Int 2 Physics -> Waves & Optics -> Refraction through blocks and prisms
Activity – Air to Glass
By the end of this practical session
you
will know:
how to draw a normal
how to identify, and measure,
angles of
incidence and refraction as light
passes from air to glass.
what is meant by refraction.
Place the block on the outline
provided
Shine the light ray along the line
 Accurately mark the path of the refracted ray

Then switch off the light source and remove the block
Remove the block and draw in the refracted ray
Carefully draw in the normal
Mark the angles of incidence (i) and refraction (r)

Use a protractor to measure the angles of incidence

(i) and refraction (r)
 Record your results in the space provided

i=
r=
Use a protractor to measure the angles of incidence
(i) and refraction (r)
 Think!
What happens when the ray of
light
shines into the block along the
normal?
Is refraction taking place?

What is meant by the angle of

incidence?
 Think!
What is meant by the angle of
refraction?

What happens when the angle of

incidence is greater than 0o?
refracted ray

angle of refraction r

angle of incidence i

normal
incident (or incoming)
ray
r is less than i
 Refraction
Light travels in a straight line.

When light travels from one material (e.g.

air) to another (e.g. glass) it changes
speed. This is called
refraction.
This change in speed sometimes causes it
to change direction.

change in speed
Refraction is the
of light as it passes from one
medium to another.
 Refraction of Light –
Glass to Air
Watch the demonstration with the laser optics kit.

What is meant by the normal?

What is meant by the angle of incidence?

What is meant by the angle of refraction?

What do you notice about the angles of incidence
and
refraction? How do they compare?

Virtual Int 2 Physics -> Waves & Optics -> Refraction through blocks and prisms
Activity – Glass to Air
By the end of this practical session
you
will know:
how to draw a normal
how to identify, and measure,
angles of
incidence and refraction as light
passes from air to glass.
what is meant by refraction.
Place the block on the outline
provided
Shine the light ray along the line
 Accurately draw in the path of the refracted ray

Then switch off the light source and remove the block
 Accurately draw in the path of the refracted ray

Then switch off the light source and remove the block
Carefully draw in the normal
Measure the ANGLE OF INCIDENCE, i

Measure the ANGLE OF REFRACTION, r

Record your results in the space provided

i=
r=
Refraction Angle of
Incidence (i)
Angle of
Refraction

– Glass to (r)

Air 0o
(along the
normal)

Ray 15o
Box

35 o

42o
75 o
 Think!
What happens when the ray of
light
shines into the block along the
normal?
Is refraction taking place?

What is meant by the angle of

incidence?
 Think!
What is meant by the angle of
refraction?

What happens when the angle of

incidence is greater than 0o? What
do
you notice as you increase the
angle of
incidence?
 Blue light
refracts more than
 Why does refraction
occur?
Virtual Physics Animations -> Refraction of Waves
 Why do we need to know
about refraction?
Refraction explains:
how the eye focuses
light;
sight defects such as
long and short sight
and how to correct
them using contact
lenses or glasses.
All lenses refract
light. Lenses are
used in cameras,
telescopes and
binoculars.
Total Internal Reflection
and the Amazing
Disappearing Coin
Key words: total internal reflection,
critical
angle, optical fibres

By the end of this lesson you will be able to:

Explain, with the aid of a diagram, what is
meant
by total internal reflection.
Explain, with the aid of a diagram, what is
meant
by the “critical angle”.
Describe the principle of an optical fibre
transmission system.
 Think!
What happens when light passes from
one
material to another?

What happens when light passes from

glass to air? How does the angle of
incidence compare with the angle of
refraction?
 Critical Angle
Flash animation

We’ve seen that as light passes

from glass to air, it changes
direction away from the normal.

When light passes from glass to

air there is an angle beyond
which light cannot escape from
the glass.

This is called the

critical angle.
What happens at the
critical angle?
What happens at the
critical angle?
At the critical angle,
the angle of refraction
is 90°. Beyond the
critical angle, Total
Internal Reflection (TIR)
occurs.
When TIR occurs the angle
of incidence = angle of
 The normal, angle of
incidence and angle of
reflection
Complete the sentences to give
definitions of
the normal, and angles of incidence and
reflection.

The normal is

The angle of incidence is

The angle of reflection is

 Reflection of Light
The normal is at a
Law of Reflection right angle (90º)
to the surface.

Θi ΘR

angle of incidence = angle of

reflection
Flash animation - reflection
 Reversibility of Rays
The normal is at a
Law of Reflection right angle (90º)
to the surface.
N
I
R

ΘR Θi

angle of incidence = angle of

reflection
Flash animation - reflection
Total internal reflection is
used in fibre optics which are
used in:
medicine ;
cable television ;
internet ;
telephone access.
 Optical Fibres

Optical fibres are about the

thickness of a human hair.

Each fibre is a thin piece of

glass, coated with a thin
layer (or cladding) of
another glass.
 Using Optical Fibres in
Communication Systems
Optical fibre – sound transmitter and receiver.

What are the steps needed to use

optical fibres in a
communication system?

For example in a telephone

system?
 Transmission
The sound signal must be changed into an
electrical signal. The signal is a series of
electrical pulses.

What input device is used to convert sound

to
an electrical signal?

The electrical signal is converted into

pulses of light which are transmitted
through the optical fibre via total internal
reflection.
 Receiving
The light signal is changed back
into an
electrical signal using a
photodiode.

The electrical signal is converted

into
sound. What output device is used to
convert an electrical signal to
sound?
What are the advantages of
using optical fibres in
communications?
The signal that passes along the fibre
is not
electrical so less likely to suffer from
interference.

Cheaper to make than copper.

Can carry far more information than

copper
wires. (One optical fibre cable could
take all the
telephone calls being made in the world
at any
time!)
There is less loss of signal –
so not as
many amplifiers required.

Disadvantage – can be more

difficult to
join fibres than copper wires.
Using Fibre Optics in
Medicine
When light is produced using a normal
electric light bulb, what energy
transformations take place?

Electric energy -> Light energy

Electric energy -> Heat energy

In an ordinary light
bulb, the filament heats
to about 2500oC – the
bulb is very hot!
You can use fibre
optics to provide
a “cold” light
source inside the
body

that means the

light travels but
it doesn’t get
hot!
 Controls End probe containing
coherent bundle,
incoherent bundle, lens
and surgical instruments

Eyepiece

ENDOSCOPE

Light injected here

This is an endoscope image of

the inside of the throat. The
arrows point to the vocal chords
A COHERENT BUNDLE: A bundle of
optical fibres in which the optical
fibres are neatly arranged relative to
one another. Such a bundle are used
for the transmission of images.

A NON-COHERENT FIBRE bundle, as

you would expect, does not have this
neat layout since they need only
transmit light for illumination
purposes. They are cheaper to
produce.
Endoscopes
An endoscope consists of two bundles of
optical fibres: the LIGHT GUIDE and the
IMAGE GUIDE
The purpose of the LIGHT GUIDE is to send
light (but not heat!) INTO the patient

The IMAGE GUIDE brings light back, allowing

the doctor to see inside the body

Light travels along both of these

bundles by TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
Key words: curved reflectors, received
signals, transmitted signals

By the end of this lesson you will be able to:

Explain the action of curved
reflectors on
certain received signals.
Explain the action of curved
reflectors on
certain transmitted signals.
Describe an application of curved
reflectors used in telecommunication.
 Curved Reflectors
Watch the demonstration.

What do you notice about the

light when a
curved reflector is used? Where
do we
make use of curved reflectors?
 Dish Aerials
A dish aerial can be used
either
to receive or to transmit a
radio
(or microwave) signal.

Virtual Int 1 Physics -> Telecommunications -> Satellites -> Curved

reflectors
 receiver

receiving dish aerial

The receiving dish aerial gathers in parallel
rays from a distant object and reflects the rays
to one point called the focus. The receiving
aerial is placed at the focus to receive the
strongest signal.
If we tilt the dish…

er
e

iv
eiv

r ec e
r ec

receiving dish aerial

 transmitter

transmitting dish aerial

The transmitting aerial allows a strong

(concentrated) signal to be sent in a
particular
direction from the transmitting dish
tran
sm
itte
r

transmitting dish aerial

 Dish Aerials
What is the advantage of using a dish
with a larger area?

The dish collects more of the incoming

beam and focuses it – resulting in a
stronger signal. Satellite TV in
Scotland
requires a bigger dish than in England!
 Dish Aerials
A dish aerial can be used either
to
receive or to transmit a radio
(or
microwave) signal.
 Tasks & Homework for …

YPQ2 3.23, 3.28

McCormick & Baillie Int 2 Physics
p133 qu 2, p145-146 qu 1, 2

YPQ2 3.25, 3.35

McCormick & Baillie Int 2 Physics
p133 qu 1
What have you learned?
Key words: converging, diverging, lenses,
parallel light rays, power, focal length

By the end of this lesson you will be able to:

Describe the shape of converging and
diverging lenses.
Describe the effect of converging and
diverging lenses on parallel rays of
light.
Carry out calculations involving the
relationship between power and focal
length of
a lens.
 Lenses
Lenses refract light.
A convex lens is one which is
thicker in
the middle than at its edge. It
bulges out.
 Lenses
When we shine parallel rays
through a
convex lens…
normal

Convex lenses bring parallel light rays to

a focus. They are converging lenses.
 Lenses
The focal length of the lens is
the
distance between the centre of
the lens normal

and the focus.

Convex lenses bring parallel light rays to

a focus. They are converging lenses.
When parallel light rays enter a
CONVEX lens they are CONVERGED
(focused)

The rays meet at a point called

the PRINCIPAL FOCUS (‘F’ in the
diagram)
 The distance from the centre of the lens
to the principal focus is called the FOCAL
LENGTH (f)

f
 Lenses
A concave lens is one which is
thinner in the middle than at
its edge. It
“caves” in.
 Lenses
When we shine parallel rays
through a
concave lens…
normal

Concave lenses cause parallel light rays to diverge.

 Measuring the Focal Length
of a Concave Lens
The focal length of a lens is
the distance
from the centre of the lens to
where the
rays come together.

But a concave lens causes the rays to diverge!

verging lenses have a negative focal length.

Focal length f
When light rays enter a CONCAVE
lens they are DIVERGED (spread)

This time the principal focus is

BEHIND the lens
 As before, the distance to the
principal focus is the FOCAL LENGTH

Because the focal length is in the

opposite direction, we give it a
NEGATIVE value
 Summary (so far)

Type of Focal
What it does
lens length
CONVERGES
light
(brings the Positive
Convex
rays
together)
DIVERGES
light
Concave (spreads the Negative
rays)
 Thick and Thin Lenses
Observe the demonstration with the lenses.

Can you predict which lenses will be

converging? And which will be
diverging?

Is there a relationship between the

thickness of the lens and the focal
length?
Measuring the Focal Length
of a Converging Lens

By the end of this practical

session you
will be able to measure the
focal length of
a converging lens.
Measuring the Focal Length
of a Converging Lens
Step 1: Identify a distant light source.
Hold
the lens between the light source and screen
(piece of paper).

Step 2: Move the lens back and forward until

a
focused image appears on the screen.

Step 3: Measure the distance between the

centre of the lens and the screen on which
the
focused image appears – this is the focal
length.
Measuring the Focal Length
of a Converging Lens
Note your results.
Why must a distant light source be
used?
Which lens had the shortest focal
length?
Which lens had the longest focal
length?
Which lens is the weakest?
Which lens is the strongest?
Could you predict this without making
measurements?
Compare these 2 convex lenses:
The thicker lens has a shorter focal
length

f
The thicker lens “bends” the light more,
so we say it has a greater POWER than
the thin lens

f
 Power of Lenses
A more powerful lens causes more
refraction.

The power of a lens is measured in

dioptres.
1
power 
focal length
 POWER OF A LENS
To calculate a lens’ power, use this
equation:
1
power 
focal length

For
short: 1
P
f
METRES
DIOPTRES
(D) (m)
 Power of Lenses
Converging lenses have a
positive focal
length and a positive power.

Diverging lenses have a

negative focal
length and a negative power.
 Summary
Type of Focal
What it does Power
lens length
CONVERGES
light
Positiv
Convex (brings the Positiv
e
rays e
together)
DIVERGES
light Negativ
Concave Negativ
(spreads the e
e
rays)
A lens has a focal length of 20 cm.
Find its power.

What do I know?
f = 20 cm = 0.2 m

1 1
P  5 D
f 0.2
What type of lens is this? How do
you know?
A lens has a power of -12D. What
type of lens is this?

Diverging / concave – since the

power is negative.
A concave lens has a power of -12D.
Find its
focal length.

What do I know?
f = ?
P = -12 D
1 1
f    0.083m
P  12
 Focal Length and Power
Questions
For each of the lenses below calculate the focal length or power
and state whether the lens is convex (converging) or concave
(diverging).

Find the focal length of 1-9

Find the power of 10-18
1 Lens power +10D 10 Focal length 0.5 m
2 Lens power –10D 11 Focal length -50cm
3 Lens power +100D 12 Focal length 20cm
4 Lens power -24D 13 Focal length 0.2cm
5 Lens power 3D 14 Focal length 0.4cm
6 Lens power 16D 15 Focal length -0.25cm
7 Lens power 24D 16 Focal length -0.10cm
8 Lens power -32D 17 Focal length 30cm
9 Lens power -1.33D 18 Focal length -15cm

ch is the most powerful lens? Which has the longest focal length?
Key words: converging, diverging, lenses,
retina, long sight, short sight, ray diagram,
image
formation, real, virtual, magnified,
diminished, inverted

By the end of this lesson you will be able to:

Draw a ray diagram to show how a converging
lens forms the image of an object placed at
different distances in front of the lens.
Describe the focusing of light on the
retina
of the eye.
State the meaning of long and short sight.
Explain the use of lenses to correct long and
short sight.
 Creating Images with
Lenses
Two important rules when dealing
with
lenses.
1. If the light ray enters the
centre of the lens then is
passes straight through.
 Creating Images with
Lenses
2. If the light ray enters the
lens travelling horizontally,
it is refracted through the
focal point.
 Source of light relatively
distant from the lens

F F

Virtual Int 2 Physics – Waves and Optics

Source of light relatively
distant from the lens

F F

We see a real image is formed. The image

is smaller than the object (it is
diminished), and is inverted.

A real image is one which can be formed

on a screen.
Source of light more than
two focal lengths from the
lens

F F F

We see a real image is formed. The image

is smaller than the object (it is
diminished), and is inverted.

A real image is one which can be formed

on a screen.
 Source of light between
one and two focal lengths
from the lens

F F F

We see a real image is formed. The image

is larger than the object (it is
magnified), and is inverted.

A real image is one which can be formed

on a screen.
 Source of light between
less than one focal length
from the lens

F F F

The rays do not meet.

 We trace the rays
back to find where
the rays would
meet.

F F F
 F F F

The image is virtual. It is

an illusion of the eye and
brain – but you could not
place a screen here and see
 upright
The image is
and magnified.

F F F
Source of light closer to the
lens than its focal length

The rays do not meet beyond the lens (the rays

are diverging). When the rays are projected back
they do meet. Since light does not actually pass
through this point, it is a virtual image.

The human eye will bring the light to focus and

the virtual (magnified) image seen. This is the
 Ray Diagrams

Virtual Int 2 Physics -> Waves &

Optics ->
Lenses -> Ray Diagrams & More
Ray
Diagrams
Magnification of a Lens
An image formed by a lens is either
magnified (bigger) or
diminished (smaller).

lengthof image
magnification 
lengthof object
 Summary
Objects more than two focal lengths:
The image is real, inverted and
diminished.

Objects between one and two focal

lengths:
The image is real, inverted and magnified.

Object less than one focal length:

The image is virtual, upright and
magnified.
 The Human Eye
Light enters the front of the eye
at the cornea. It is
transparent, and it is here that
most of the refraction occurs.
 The Human Eye
1 4

3
 1 controls the
amount of light
1 4 which enters the
eye

2 It is called

the iris
3
 4 2 is the hole in
1 the middle of the
iris. It allows
2 light to enter the
eye.

It is called
3 the pupil
In bright light will the pupil
be large or small?
It will be smaller to prevent too much
light from getting in to the eye.
1 4 Along with the
cornea, 3 focuses
the light. It is
2
called
the jelly
lens
3
How does the eye lens
focus on objects at
different distances?
Muscles around the lens make
it thicker or thinner.
1 4 4 is where the
“light picture” is
built up. It is
2 called
the retina

3
The retina contains nerve
cells which are affected by
light and send signals to the
1 4 4 is where the
“light picture” is
built up. It is
2 called
the retina

3
To see objects clearly, light
must be focused on the
retina.
Virtual Int 2 Physics -> Waves and
Optics -> Applications of Lenses ->
The Eye
 Remember!

Most of the
refraction occurs in
the cornea –
not the lens!
 Common Sight Defects

Long and short sight

are caused by the failure of
the eye’s lens to bring the
light rays to a focus on the
retina.
 Long and Short Sight
Observe the demonstration of long and short
sight.

Where do the rays meet when a person is long

sighted?
What type of lens can be used to correct
this?
Where do the rays meet when a person is
short
sighted?
What type of lens can be used to correct
this?
 Long Sight
A person with long sight can see far
away
objects clearly. Objects close up
appear
blurred.
Long sight occurs when the light rays
are
focused “beyond” the retina.
 Long Sight
Remember that rays do not actually pass beyond
the back of the eye!

Long sight can occur because the eyeball is

shorter than normal from front to back. It can
also be caused by the ciliary muscles not
relaxing to make the lens fat enough.
 Long Sight
Long sight can occur because the eyeball
is
shorter than normal from front to back.
It can
also be caused by the ciliary muscles not
relaxing to make the lens fat enough.
Remember
the fatter the lens, the more powerful
and the
more quickly rays are brought to a focus.
 Long Sight
A person with long sight can see far away
objects clearly. The rays are parallel and
can be
brought to a focus on the retina.

Objects close up appear blurred. The rays

coming from a close up object are diverging
and
the eye does not bring them to a focus on
the
retina.
 Long Sight
A convex lens converges the
light rays
before the cornea/lens and
allows the eye
to focus the light on the retina
rather
than behind the retina.
 Short Sight
A person with short sight can see
close
objects clearly. Objects far away
appear
blurred.
Short sight occurs when the light
rays are
focused in front the retina.
 Short Sight

Short sight can occur because the lens in the

eye is very curved. It can also be caused by
the
ciliary muscles not making the lens thin
enough.
 Short Sight
A person with short sight can see close
up
objects clearly. The rays are diverging
and can
be focused on the retina.

Distant objects appear blurred. The rays

coming from a distance object are
parallel and
the eye brings them to a focus too soon.
 Short Sight
A concave lens diverges the
light rays
before the cornea/lens and
allows the eye
to focus the light on the retina
rather
than in front of the retina.