BIOL 0200
NERVOUS SYSTEM
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Structure and Function of Sensory, Motor, and Relay Neurones
Neurones (nerve cells) are specialized cells that transmit electrical impulses, enabling communication
within the nervous system. Sensory, motor, and relay neurones have distinct structures and functions
tailored to their specific roles.
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Sensory Neurones
•Structure:
•Long dendron (from sensory receptor to the cell body).
•Short axon (from the cell body to the central nervous system, CNS).
•Cell body is located outside the CNS, in a structure called a dorsal root ganglion.
•Myelin sheath surrounds the dendron and axon, speeding up impulse conduction.
•Function:
•Transmit sensory information (e.g., touch, pain, temperature) from sensory receptors to the CNS (spinal cord and
brain).
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Motor Neurones
•Structure:
• Long axon extending from the CNS to the effector (muscles or glands).
• Multiple short dendrites around the cell body, located in the CNS.
• Myelin sheath insulates the axon, ensuring fast signal transmission.
•Function:
• Carry impulses from the CNS to effectors, causing a response (e.g., muscle contraction or gland secretion).
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Relay Neurones (Interneurones)
•Structure:
•Short axons and dendrites for transmitting
signals within the CNS.
•Cell body is located in the grey matter of the
spinal cord or brain.
•Typically unmyelinated.
•Function:
•Connect sensory neurones to motor neurones
within the CNS, forming reflex arcs and
facilitating communication between different
parts of the nervous system.
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Resting Potential and Action Potential Development
Nerve cells (neurones) communicate through electrical signals. These signals involve changes in the resting
potential and the generation of an action potential.
Resting Potential
[Link]:
The resting potential is the electrical charge difference across the neurone's plasma membrane when the neurone is not
transmitting an impulse. Typically, the inside of the neurone is -70 mV relative to the outside.
[Link]:
1. Sodium-Potassium Pump:
1. A membrane protein actively transports 3 sodium ions (Na⁺) out of the cell and 2 potassium ions (K⁺) into the
cell using ATP.
2. This creates a high concentration of Na⁺ outside and K⁺ inside the cell.
2. Potassium Leak Channels:
1. K⁺ ions diffuse out of the cell down their concentration gradient through leak channels.
2. This movement leaves the inside of the cell more negatively charged.
3. Impermeable Anions:
1. Negatively charged proteins and other anions inside the cell cannot pass through the membrane, contributing
to the negative charge.
[Link]:
The resting potential is maintained, with the inside of the neurone being negative compared to the outside.
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Resting Potential and Action Potential Development
Nerve cells (neurones) communicate through electrical signals. These signals involve changes in the resting
potential and the generation of an action potential.
An action potential is a rapid, temporary change in the membrane potential, allowing the neurone to transmit an
impulse.
•Stages:
•Depolarization:
•When a stimulus reaches the neurone, voltage-gated sodium channels open, allowing Na⁺ ions to flood
into the cell.
•The influx of Na⁺ reduces the negative charge inside the cell, causing the membrane potential to become
more positive.
•If the threshold potential (-55 mV) is reached, more Na⁺ channels open, and the potential rises to about
+30 mV.
•Repolarization:
•At +30 mV, sodium channels close, and voltage-gated potassium channels open.
•K⁺ ions flow out of the cell, restoring the negative charge inside.
•Hyperpolarization:
•K⁺ channels are slow to close, causing an overshoot where the membrane potential becomes more
negative than the resting potential (e.g., -80 mV).
•This ensures the signal travels in one direction only.
•Restoration:
•The sodium-potassium pump restores the resting potential by moving Na⁺ out and K ⁺ back into the cell.8
Action potential
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Nerve Impulse Transmission in Myelinated and Unmyelinated
Neurones
The transmission of nerve impulses involves the movement of electrical signals (action potentials) along the axon
of a neurone. While the basic mechanism is the same, the process differs between myelinated and unmyelinated
neurones due to the presence or absence of a myelin sheath.
1. Depolarization:
1. When a stimulus reaches the axon, voltage-gated sodium channels open at the site, causing an influx of Na⁺ ions.
The inside of the axon becomes positively charged relative to the outside.
2. Local Currents:
1. The positive charge at the depolarized region creates local currents that stimulate adjacent regions of the axon,
opening sodium channels in those areas and propagating the action potential.
3. Repolarization:
1. As the action potential moves forward, potassium channels open, allowing K⁺ ions to exit the cell, restoring the
negative charge inside.
4. Continuous Conduction:
1. This process repeats along the entire length of the axon, resulting in slow conduction because the action potential
must be regenerated at every point.
Speed:
•Transmission in unmyelinated neurones is slow (0.5–2 m/s) because there is no insulation, and the signal continuously
regenerates
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Nerve Impulse Transmission in Myelinated Neurones
In myelinated neurones, the axon is covered by a myelin sheath, which acts as an electrical insulator. The sheath
is interrupted at regular intervals by nodes of Ranvier, where the axon membrane is exposed.
Process:
[Link] Conduction:
1. Instead of continuous propagation, the action potential "jumps" between the nodes of Ranvier.
2. At each node, voltage-gated sodium channels open, allowing Na⁺ to enter and generate an action potential.
[Link] Currents:
1. The depolarization at one node creates local currents that stimulate the next node, bypassing the
myelinated segments.
[Link] by Myelin:
1. The myelin sheath prevents ion leakage and minimizes the need for ion exchange along the insulated
regions, conserving energy and increasing speed.
Speed:
•Transmission in myelinated neurones is faster (up to 120 m/s) due to saltatory conduction.
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Significance of Myelination
•Myelinated Neurones: Found in the peripheral and central nervous systems where rapid signal transmission
is essential, such as motor neurones and sensory neurones.
•Unmyelinated Neurones: Found in regions where speed is less critical, such as the autonomic nervous
system.
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Significance of Threshold Value in Impulse Conduction
The threshold value is the minimum level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neurone. It is
typically around -55 mV, a change from the resting potential of -70 mV.
1. All-or-Nothing Law:
• If the stimulus reaches or exceeds the threshold value, an action potential is generated, and the impulse is
propagated along the axon.
• If the stimulus is below the threshold, no action potential occurs. The neurone either fires completely or not
at all.
• This mechanism ensures that impulses are consistent in size and strength, regardless of stimulus intensity.
2. Weak vs. Strong Stimuli:
• Weak Stimulus: May not reach the threshold value, so no action potential is generated.
• Strong Stimulus: Exceeds the threshold and increases the frequency of action potentials, but not their size.
The strength of the stimulus is encoded by the frequency of impulses, not their amplitude.
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Factors Influencing Speed of Conduction
•Myelination:
•Myelinated axons conduct impulses faster due to saltatory conduction, where action potentials "jump"
between nodes of Ranvier.
•Unmyelinated axons conduct impulses more slowly due to continuous conduction.
•Axon Diameter:
•Larger-diameter axons conduct impulses faster because they offer less resistance to the flow of ions.
•Temperature:
•Higher temperatures increase the speed of conduction as enzymes and ion channels work more efficiently.
•Below a certain temperature, conduction slows due to reduced enzymatic activity.
•Ion Channel Density:
•The number and distribution of sodium and potassium channels along the axon affect the speed of
depolarization and repolarization.
•External Factors:
•Drugs, toxins, or diseases (e.g., multiple sclerosis) can alter conduction by affecting ion channels or myelin
integrity.
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Electrical to Chemical transmission
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Synaptic Transmission
A cholinergic synapse is one that uses the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.
1. Action potential arrives. When an action potential reaches the synaptic knob, the membrane of the pre-synaptic
neurone changes permeability by opening voltage-dependent calcium channels.
2. Calcium ions rush into the pre-synaptic neurone. Calcium ions diffuse into the synaptic knob down the
concentration gradient.
3. The synaptic vesicles fuse with the pre-synaptic membrane. The excess of calcium ions cause the vesicles to
move towards and then fuse with the membrane, releasing acetylcholine (the contents of the vesicles) into the
synaptic cleft. This process is exocytosis.
4. Acetylcholine diffuses across the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitters diffuse down the concentration
gradient.
5. Acetylcholine binds with receptors in the post-synaptic membrane. These receptors change shape, opening
a channel to allow sodium ions to diffuse in. As the receptors are only present on the post-synaptic membrane, the
impulse cannot travel back, so it is unidirectional.
6. Sodium ions rush into the post-synaptic neurone. If enough sodium ions diffuse in, the action potential
threshold is reached and this triggers depolarisation of the neurone.
7. An action potential in the post-synaptic neurone is generated.
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Distinction Between Monosynaptic and Polysynaptic Reflex Arcs
1. Monosynaptic Reflex Arc:
1. Involves only one synapse between a sensory neurone and a motor neurone.
2. Example: The knee-jerk reflex, where a sensory stimulus directly triggers a motor response without interneurones.
3. Characteristics:
• Simple and rapid.
• Minimal delay due to the absence of interneurones.
2. Polysynaptic Reflex Arc:
1. Involves multiple synapses, with one or more interneurones between the sensory and motor neurones.
2. Example: The withdrawal reflex, where a painful stimulus triggers a coordinated response involving several
muscles.
3. Characteristics:
• More complex and slower than monosynaptic reflexes due to the involvement of interneurones.
• Allows integration of information and coordinated responses.
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Features of a Polysynaptic Spinal Reflex Arc (Withdrawal Reflex)
The withdrawal reflex, also called the flexor reflex, is a protective response that removes a body part from a harmful stimulus
(e.g., touching a hot object).
1. Receptor:
1. A sensory receptor (e.g., pain receptor) detects the stimulus and generates an action potential.
2. Sensory Neurone:
1. Transmits the action potential to the spinal cord.
3. Interneurones:
1. Located in the spinal cord, interneurones process the sensory input and relay signals to multiple motor neurones.
2. Facilitate communication with other muscles for coordinated movement.
4. Motor Neurones:
1. Carry impulses to the effector muscles (e.g., flexor muscles in the arm).
5. Effectors:
1. Muscles contract to withdraw the body part from the stimulus.
2. In some cases, extensor muscles are inhibited through reciprocal inhibition to ensure a smooth response.
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Importance of Reflexes
•Protection:
•Reflexes like the withdrawal reflex prevent tissue damage by rapidly removing the body from harmful stimuli.
•Survival:
•Reflexes (e.g., blinking, coughing) protect vital organs, like the eyes and respiratory system, ensuring survival in
dangerous situations.
•Automatic Responses:
•Reflexes bypass conscious control, allowing faster responses than voluntary actions.
•Coordination:
•Reflexes like postural reflexes help maintain balance and posture during movement.
•Diagnostic Tool:
•Reflexes are used clinically to assess the integrity of the nervous system (e.g., knee-jerk reflex tests spinal cord
function).
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