Mechanistic Models for Additive
Manufacturing of Metallic
Components
Mukul
Dept. Metallurgical Engineering & Material
Science
IIT Bombay
Contents
Introduction
Transport Phenomena Models
Types Of Heat Sources
Double Ellipsoidal Model
Modeling Heat Absorption
Driving Forces for Fluid Motion
Free Surface Geometry
Boundary Conditions
Thermophysical Properties of Materials
Modeling of Functionally Graded Alloys
Introduction
Printability – Ability of an alloy feedstock, powder or wire, converted to a component
with acceptable metallurgical, mechanical, and functional requirements
Microstructure and properties of the parts depends on:
Process Variables (type of heat source, scanning pattern , hatch spacing)
Causative Factors (resultant transient temperature fields, solidification and cooling
rates)
Prediction of causative variables:
Transport Phenomena models
Scale Models
Bidirectional Models
Transport Phenomena Models
Series of physical processes includes:
Energy absorption by feedstock and substrate materials
Different modes of heat transfer
Formation of the molten pool
Liquid metal flow within the molten pool
Vaporization of alloying elements
Solidification
Solid-state phase transformations
Comparison
Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) Directed Energy Deposition (DED)
A focused energy beam is used to A high energy beam is used to
selectively melt powder particles generate a molten pool that fuses
in a powder bed and form the the added feedstock material with
build layer wise a substrate and previously
deposited material to form the part
Powder is used as feedstock
Powders and filler wires are used
as feedstocks
Distinguished by primary heat source methods:
Laser Beam (L), Electron Beam (EB), Gas Tungsten Arc (GTA), Plasma Arc (PA),
Gas Metal Arc (GMA)
Types of Heat Sources
Point Source
1
Line Source
2
Surface Heat Flux
3
Volumetric Heat
4 Flux
Point Heat Source
Solution of heat conduction equation in AM
Rosenthal equation to estimate the temperature field in 3-D
where, V = scan speed, T = temperature, k = thermal conductivity, D =
thermal diffusivity, ρ = density,
q = absorbed power, = initial temperature, = specific heat
Line Heat Source
Quasi-steady state temperature distribution is given by
where, V = scan speed, T = temperature, k = thermal conductivity, D =
thermal diffusivity, q = absorbed power, = initial temperature, d = plate
thickness, = modified Bessel function, x = distance from the moving line
source along the scan direction, r = distance from the heat source to the
location where temperature is calculated
Surface Heat Source
Power density distribution
where, r = radial distance of a surface point to the heat source axis, P =
gross power of heat source,
f = power distribution factor, = radius of heat source
Volumetric Heat Source
Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) Directed Energy Deposition (DED)
Power density distribution Energy absorbed by the powder
and the depositing layer
where, r = radial distance of a
surface point to the heat source axis, where, = fraction of laser energy
P = gross power of heat source, f = absorbed by the powderP = laser
power distribution factor, = radius of power, f = laser energy distribution
heat source, = powder layer factor, = layer thickness, r = radial
thickness, x and y are the distances distance from laser beam axis, =
to the axis of the laser beam fraction of laser energy absorbed by
the powder
Double Ellipsoidal Model
Weld fusion zone and AM commonly exhibit a tear drop shape because:
Heat source movement
Liquid metal flow within the molten pool
Why double ellipsoidal heat source distribution widely used?
Heat is artificially distributed along the length, depth and width directions
of the source to partially correct the erroneous pool shape obtained from
heat conduction calculations
It do not compensate heat transfer by convection
Limitations of Heat-Conduction Model
Erroneous temperature gradients, cooling rates, solidification parameters
1 2 3
Diversity of fusion Role of surface-active Failure to consider
zone shapes for elements such as mixing of hot and
various process sulfur and oxygen cold fluids
parameters
Modeling Heat Absorption
Mechanism of heat absorption depends on:
Type of feedstock
Liquid metal in the molten pool
Solid part
Laser Heat
1
Source
Electron Beam Heat
2
Source
Arc Heat
3
source
Laser Heat Source
In DED processes, the powder particles absorb heat in two stages:
Heat is absorbed by the powder during their flight
The heated powder particles absorb heat and melt to form the molten pool
Conduction Mode
DED processes
Absorption of laser beam only once and the remaining energy is reflected
from the pool surface
Keyhole mode
PBF processes
Bouncing of the beam within the keyhole surfaces in multiple locations
Electron Beam Heat Source
Mechanism:
Electrons are generated in a gun accelerated by an electric potential up to
100 kV
Electromagnetic lens focuses the electron beam to achieve high energy
densities
KE of the electrons transforms into thermal energy when impacts the
feedstock material
Some energy is lost through backscattered electrons
Smoking – Electrostatic repulsion of powder particles from the bed due to
the negative electrical charge buildup in individual particles
Arc Heat Source
The arc can be divided into three regions:
Arc Column – Electrically neutral composed of neutral atoms, electrons
and positive ions
Cathode – Electrons are emitted from the cathode and condensed at the
anode
Anode – Ions travel from anode to the cathode through the arc column
Electric arc is established between the electrode and the substrate, serves
as the heat source
Energy is released from the arc due to the agitated activities of the
particles
Driving Forces for Fluid Motion
1 4
2 3 5
Marangon Lorent Drople Buoyan Recoil
i z t and cy Force Force
Force Force Powde
r
Impac
t
Force
Free Surface Geometry
Fluid Dynamics with Moving Numerical
Boundaries Methods
Profile of the pool surface varies
with time
Interface Interface
Interface Capturing Method Capturing Tracking
A set of grids moves with and
exactly fits the interface
Difficult to consider the breakup
and coalescence of fluids VOF Level-set
Interface Tracking Method
It uses a set of fixed grids
VOF Method
Choice of single fluid v/s two fluids
In PBF-L, tempting to choose two fluids: molten metal and the shielding gas
Liquid and gas have the same velocities in the grid cell
Error when there is a large difference in density and viscosity between liquid
and gas
Conservation equation of fluid fraction
where, = volume fraction of a cell occupied by fluid, = 0; void cell where no
fluid is present, = 1; liquid cell completely occupied by the fluid, 0<<1;
interface cell containing the molten pool interface
Level-set Method
It uses a level-set function to compute the levels of the interface region
Surface profile of the fusion zone is estimated by minimizing the total
energy on the top surface of the molten pool
where, γ = surface tension, λ = Lagrange multiplier, = wire radius, = wire
feed rate, V = welding speed, = solidified surface profile, = z location of the
specimen top surface, = arc pressure
Boundary Conditions
Surface heat flux and heat loss are boundary conditions for energy
conservation equation
=q- -
where, k = thermal conductivity, = temperature gradient along the normal
direction, q = heat input, , = heat loss by convection, radiation, and
vaporization respectively, σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant, ɛ = emissivity, Ta
= ambient temperature, = convective heat transfer coefficient, n = number
of alloying elements, = vaporization flux of element i, = enthalpy of
vaporization of element i
Thermo-physical Properties of
Materials
In PBF, effective thermophysical Consider the effects of powder
properties of the packed powder particle shape, size and inter-
bed depend on the shielding gas particle distance
and packing efficiency
where, η = powder packing density
of powder bed, and = density of
Effective thermal conductivity solid and gas, and = thermal
depends on the thermal conductivity of solid and gas, N =
conductivity of shielding gas coordination number, L = product of
a constant and powder particle
diameter
Modeling of Functionally Graded Alloys
Effective alloy properties () at a Challenges
particular location by rule of mixtures
Temperature dependent
thermo-physical and
1 mechanical properties
Compositional dependence of properties
data not available
Local composition
changes continuously
2 with the fabrication
where, and = terminal alloy properties, process
and V2 = corresponding volume fractions, Variation in thermo-
property of the pure solvent, = coefficient physical and mechanical
3 properties due to addition
for element i, = concentration of element
i of new layers
