UNIT –IV

SENSORS
AND
TRANSDUCER
S
 UNIT - II: SENSORS AND
TRANSDUCERS

1. Introduction
2. Factors influencing the choice of Transducers
3. Classification of electrical transducers
5. Resistive Transducer
6. Variable-Inductance Transducers
7. Instrument Transformers
 INTRODUCTION OF
TRANSDUCERS
• A transducer is a device that convert one form of
energy to other form. It converts the measurand to a
usable electrical signal.
• In other word it is a device that is capable of
converting the physical quantity into a proportional
electrical quantity such as voltage or current.

Pressure Voltage
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TRANSDUCERS

• Transducer contains two parts that are closely related

to each other i.e. the sensing element and transduction
element.
• The sensing element is called as the sensor. It is device
producing measurable response to change in physical
conditions.
• The transduction element convert the sensor output
to suitable electrical form.
 TRANSDUCERS SELECTION FACTORS
1. Operating Principle: The transducer are many times selected on the
basis of operating principle used by them. The operating principle used
may be resistive, inductive, capacitive , optoelectronic, piezo electric etc.

2. Sensitivity: The transducer must be sensitive enough to produce

detectable output.

3. Operating Range: The transducer should maintain the range

requirement and have a good resolution over the entire range.

4. Accuracy: High accuracy is assured.

5. Cross sensitivity: It has to be taken into account when measuring

mechanical quantities. There are situation where the actual quantity is
being measured is in one plane and the transducer is subjected to
variation in another plan.

6. Errors: The transducer should maintain the expected input- output

relationship as described by the transfer function so as to avoid errors.
 Contd.
7. Transient and frequency response : The transducer should meet
the desired time domain specification like peak overshoot, rise
time, setting time and small dynamic error.

8. Loading Effects: The transducer should have a high input

impedance and low output impedance to avoid loading effects.

9. Environmental Compatibility: It should be assured that the

transducer selected to work under specified environmental
conditions maintains its input- output relationship and does not
break down.

10. Insensitivity to unwanted signals: The transducer should be

minimally sensitive to unwanted signals and highly sensitive to
desired signals.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

The transducers can be classified as:

I. Active and passive transducers.

II. Analog and digital transducers.
III. On the basis of transduction principle used.
IV. Primary and secondary transducer
V. Transducers and inverse transducers.
 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE
• TRANSDUCERS
Active transducers :
• These transducers do not need any external source of
power for their operation. Therefore they are also called as
self generating type transducers.
I. The active transducer are self generating devices
which operate under the energy conversion principle.
II. As the output of active transducers we get an equivalent
electrical output signal e.g. temperature or strain to electric
potential, without any external source of energy being
used.
CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVE
TRANSDUCERS
 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE
TRANSDUCERS
• Passive Transducers :
I. These transducers need external source
of power for their operation. So they
are not self generating type
transducers.
II. A DC power supply or an
audio frequency generator is
used as an external power
source.
III. These transducers produce the output
signal in the form of variation in
resistance, capacitance, inductance or
some other electrical parameter in
CLASSIFICATION OF PASSIVE
TRANSDUCERS
 PRIMARY AND
SECONDARY
TRANSDUCERS
•Some transducers contain the mechanical as well as electrical
device. The mechanical device converts the physical quantity
to be measured into a mechanical signal. Such mechanical
device are called as the primary transducers, because they deal
with the physical quantity to be measured.

•The electrical device then convert this mechanical signal

into a corresponding electrical signal. Such electrical device
are known as secondary transducers.
•Ref fig in which the diaphragm act as primary transducer. It
convert pressure (the quantity to be measured) into
displacement(the mechanical signal).
•The displacement is then converted into change in resistance using
strain gauge. Hence strain gauge acts as the secondary transducer.
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle

Area=A

Either A, d or ε can be varied.

The capacitive transducer works on the principle of change of capacitance which may
be caused by :
(i) Change in overlapping area A,
(ii) Change in the distance d between the plates,
and
(iii) Change in dielectric constant.

These changes are caused by physical variables like displacement, force and pressure in
most of the cases. The change in capacitance may be caused by change in dielectric
constant as is the case in measurement of liquid or gas levels.

(i) They require extremely small forces to operate them and hence are very
useful for
use in small systems.
(ii) They are extremely sensitive.
(iii) They have a good frequency response. This response is as high as 50 kHz
and hence theyare very useful for dynamic studies.
(iv) They have a high input impedance and therefore the loading effects are
minimum.
i) They require extremely small forces to operate them and hence are very
useful for
use in small systems.
(ii) They are extremely sensitive.
(iii) They have a good frequency response. This response is as high as 50 kHz
and hence they are very useful for dynamic studies.
(iv) They have a high input impedance and therefore the loading effects are
minimum.
(V) A resolution of the order of 2.5 x 10-3 mm can be obtained with these transducers

(vi) The force requirements of capacitive transducers are very small and therefore
they require small power to operate them.
Disadvantages of Capacitive Transducers

(i) The metallic parts of the capacitive transducers must be insulated from each other. In
order to reduce the effects of stray capacitances, the frames must be earthed.
(ii) The capacitive transducers show non-linear behavior many a times on account of edge
effects.

(iii) The output impedance of capacitive transducers tends to be high on account to their small
capacitance value.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSDUCTION:
•In electromagnetic transduction, the measurand is converted to
voltage induced in conductor by change in the magnetic flux, in
absence of excitation.
•The electromagnetic transducer are self generating active
transducers
•The motion between a piece of magnet and an electromagnet
is responsible for the change in flux
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle

INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCER:

• In inductive transduction, the measurand is converted

into a change in the self inductance of a single coil. It
is achieved by displacing the core of the coil that is
attached to a mechanical sensing element
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
PIEZO ELECTRIC INDUCTION :

•In piezoelectric induction the measurand is

converted into a change in electrostatic charge q or
voltage V generated by crystals when mechanically it
is stressed as shown in fig.
A piezo-electric material is one in which an electric potential appears across certain
surfaces of a crystal if the dimensions of the crystal are changed by the application
of a mechanical force.

This potential is produced by the displacement of charges. The effect is reversible,

i.e., conversely, if a varying potential is applied to the proper axis of the crystal, it
will change the dimensions of the crystal thereby deforming it.
This effect is known as piezo-electric effect. Elements exhibiting piezo-electric
qualities are called as electro resistive elements.
 piezoelectric effect are divided into two categories :
(i) A Natural group and
(ii) A Synthetic group.

 Quartz and Rochelle salt belong to natural group

 while materials like lithium sulphate, ethylene diamine tartrate belong

to the synthetic group.

 The piezo-electric effect can be made to respond to (or cause)

mechanical deformations of the material in many different modes.

 The modes can be : thickness expansion, transverse expansion,

thickness shear and face shear.

 The mode of motion affected depends on the shape of the body

relative to the crystal axis and location of the electrodes.

 A piezo-electric element used for converting mechanical motion to

electrical signals may be thought as charge generator and a capacitor
Mechanical deformation generates a charge and this charge appears as a
voltage across the electrodes. The voltage is E = Q/ C.

Axis numbering system for the crystal

The piezo-electric effect is direction sensitive. A tensile force produces a voltage of

one polarity while a compressive force produces a voltage of opposite polarity
By cementing two crystals together so that their electrical axes are
perpendicular, 'benders' or twisters can be produced (See Fig.). This
means that a bending motion applied to a bender produces an output
voltage. Similarly, a twisting motion applied to a twister produces an
output.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
PHOTOVOLTAIC TRANSDUCTION :

•In photovoltaic transduction the measurand is converted to

voltage generated when the junction between dissimilar
material is illuminated as shown in fig.
 A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to
produce electric current. Sometimes it is also called as photo-detector,
a light detector, and photo-sensor.

 A photodiode is one type of light detector, used to convert the light into
current or voltage based on the mode of operation of the device

Types of Photo diodes: The types of the photodiodes can be classified based
on its construction and functions as follows.
 PN Photodiode
 Schottky Photo Diode
 PIN Photodiode
 Avalanche Photodiode
Special Features of Photo diode:
 The linearity of the diode is good with respect to incident light
 Noise is low.
 The response is wide spectral
 Rugged mechanically
 Light weight and compact
 Long life
PN Photo Diode:
Prinicple:
Photoelecric effect is the basic principle of photo diode (ie) The light is incident on a
reverse biased PN junction diode to produce photo current.
Working of Photodiode:
The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of ample energy strikes the
diode, it makes a couple of an electron-hole. This mechanism is also called as the
inner photoelectric effect.
If the absorption arises in the depletion region junction, then the carriers are removed
from the junction by the inbuilt electric field of the depletion region.
Therefore, holes in the region move toward the anode, and electrons move toward the
cathode, and a photocurrent will be generated.
The entire current through the diode is the sum of the absence of light and
the photocurrent. So the absent current must be reduced to maximize the sensitivity of
the device.
Modes of Operation
The operating modes of the photodiode include three modes, namely Photovoltaic
mode, Photoconductive mode and avalanche diode mode

Photovoltaic Mode: This mode is also known as zero bias mode, in which a voltage is
produced by the lightened photodiode. It gives a very small dynamic range & non-
linear necessity of the voltage formed.

Photoconductive Mode: The photodiode used in this photoconductive mode is more

usually reverse biased. The reverse voltage application will increase the depletion
layer’s width, which in turn decreases the response time & the junction capacitance.
This mode is too fast and displays electronic noise

Avalanche Diode Mode: Avalanche diodes operate in a high reverse bias condition,
which permits multiplication of an avalanche breakdown to each photo-produced
electron-hole pair. This outcome in an internal gain in the photodiode, which slowly
increases the device response.
Applications of Photodiode
 The applications of photodiodes involve in similar applications of photo detectors
like charge-coupled devices, photoconductors, and photomultiplier tubes.

 These diodes are used in consumer electronics devices like smoke

detectors, compact disc players, and televisions and remote controls in VCRs.

 In other consumer devices like clock radios, camera light meters, and street
lights, photoconductors are more frequently used rather than photodiodes.

 Photodiodes are frequently used for exact measurement of the intensity of

light in science & industry. Generally, they have an enhanced, more linear
response than photoconductors.

 Photodiodes are also widely used in numerous medical applications like

instruments to analyze samples, detectors for computed tomography and also
used in blood gas monitors.

 These diodes are much & more complex than normal PN junction
diodes and hence are frequently used for lighting regulation and in optical
communications.
Physics of Photovoltaic
Generation

n-type
semiconduct
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + or
-+- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Depletion
Zone
p-type
semiconduct
or
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
According to Transduction Principle
PHOTO CONDUCTIVE TRANSDUCTION :

•In photoconductive transduction the measurand is

converted to change in resistance of semiconductor
material by the change in light incident on the
material.
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
Transducer and Inverse Transducer

TRANSDUCER:

•Transducers convert non electrical quantity

to electrical quantity.

INVERSE TRANSDUCER:

•Inverse transducers convert electrical quantity to a

non electrical quantity
 PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
• Resistive transducers :
– Resistive transducers are those transducers in which
the resistance change due to the change in some
physical phenomenon.
– The resistance of a metal conductor is expressed by
a simple equation.
– R = ρL/A
– Where R = resistance of conductor in
Ω L = length of conductor in m
A = cross sectional area of
conductor in m2
ρ = resistivity of conductor
material in Ω-m.
 RESISTIVE TRANSDUCER
There are 4 type of resistive transducers.

1. Potentiometers (POT)
2. Strain gauge
3. Thermistors
4. Resistance thermometer
 POTENTIOMETER
• The potentiometer are used for voltage division. They consist of a
resistive element provided with a sliding contact. The sliding contact
is called as wiper.
• The contact motion may be linear or rotational or combination of the
two. The combinational potentiometer have their resistive element
in helix form and are called helipots.
• Fig shows a linear pot and a rotary pot.
This device is a variable resistor whose resistance is varied by
movement of a slider over its resistance element. The slider is
connected to an arm which is moved by the component whose linear
motion is to be sensed. The schematic arrangement is shown in fig .
When the component moves to the right, the resistance of the
potentiometer is increased and the amount of increase is a function of
the amount of linear motion of the component. The direction of the
movement of component is indicated by whether the resistance is
increasing or decreasing. The resistance can be measured by
employing a Wheatstone bridge circuit
It resembles the linear motion potentiometer, except that the resistance
element is circular instead of straight. The slider is mounted upon a shaft and
as this shaft is rotated, the slider moves over the resistance element, cutting
off a part of total resistance. The rotating component whose angular motion is
to be sensed is coupled to this shaft.

Thus the resistance of the potentiometer changes in proportion to the angular

motion of the rotating component and the direction of rotation is determined
by whether the resistance is increasing or decreasing. Generally this type of
sensor is suitable only for angular motion not exceeding about 300
degrees.
 A strain gauge is a resistor used to measure strain on an object.
When an external force is applied on an object, due to which there is
a deformation occurs in the shape of the object.

 This deformation in the shape is both compressive or tensile is called

strain, and it is measured by the strain gauge. When an object
deforms within the limit of elasticity, either it becomes narrower and
longer or it become shorter and broadens. As a result of it, there is a
change in resistance end-to-end.
 STRAIN GAUGE
• The strain gauge is a passive, resistive transducer which
converts the mechanical elongation and compression into
a resistance change.
• This change in resistance takes place due to variation in
length and cross sectional area of the gauge wire, when an
external force acts on it.
 TYPES OF STRAIN GAUGES

The following are the major types of strain

gauges:

A Unbonded metal strain gauges

A Bonded metal wire strain gauges
A Bonded metal foil strain gauges
A Vacuum deposited thin metal film strain gauges
A Sputter deposited thin metal strain gauges
A Bonded semiconductor strain gauges
A Diffused metal strain gauges
 UNBONDED STRAIN GAUGE
 An un bonded metal strain gauge is shown in fig. This gauge
consists of a wire stretched between two points in an insulating
medium such as air.

 The wires may be made of various copper nickel, chrome nickel or

nickel iron alloys. They are about 0.003 mmin diameter, have a
gauge factor of 2 to 4 and sustain 9force of 2 mN. The length of
wire is 25 mm or less.

 The flexture element is connected via a rod to a diaphragm which

is used for sensing of pressure. The wires are tensioned to avoid
buckling when they experience a compressive force.
• The unbounded meter wire gauges used almost exclusively in
transducer application employ preloaded resistance wire
connected in Wheatstone bridge as shown in fig.

• At initial preload the strain and resistance of the four arms are
nominally equal with the result the output voltage of the
bridge is equal to zero . i.e eo =0

• Application of pressure produces a small displacement

which is about 0.004 mm (full scale), , the displacement
increases a tension in two wire and decreases it in the other
two thereby increase the resistance of two wire which are in
tension and decreasing the resistance of the remaining two
wire .

• This causes an unbalance of the bridge producing an

output voltage which is proportional to the input
displacement and hence to the applied pressure .
Electric resistance of each arm is 120 ohms to
1000 ohms, the input voltage to the bridge is 5
to 10 V, and the full scale output of the bridge is
typically about 20 mv to50 mV
 BONDED STRAIN GAUGE
 The bonded metal-wire strain gauges are used for both stress
analysis and for construction of transducers. A resistance wire strain
gauge consists of a grid of fine resistance wire of about 0.025 mm in
diameter or less.

 The grid is cemented to carrier (base) which may be a thin sheet of

paper, a thin sheet of bakelite or a sheet of teflon. The wire is
covered on top with a thin sheet of material so as to prevent it from
any mechanical damage.

 The spreading of wire permits uniform distribution of stress over the

grid. The carrier is bonded with an adhesive material to the
specimen under study.
.
 This permits a good transfer of strain from carrier to grid of wires. The wires cannot
buckle as they are embedded in a matrix of cement and hence faithfully follow both
the tensile and compressive strains of the specimen.

 Since, the materials and the wire sizes used for bonded wire strain gauges are the
same as used for unbounded wire strain gauges, the gauge factors and resistances
for both are comparable.

 The size of the strain gauges varies with application. They can be as small as 3 mm
by 3 cm square. Usually they are larger but seldom more than 25 mm long and 12.5
mm wide.
For excellent and reproducible results, it is desirable that the resistance wire
strain gauges should have the following characteristics :

(i) The strain gauge should have a high value of gauge factor Gf. A high value
of gauge factor indicates a large change in resistance for a particular strain
resulting in high sensitivity.

(ii) The resistance of the strain gauge should be as high as possible since this
minimizes the effects of undesirable variations of resistance in the
measurement
(iii)The strain gauges should have a low resistance temperature co-
efficient. This is essential to minimize errors on account of temperature
variations which affect the accuracy of measurements.

(iv) The strain gauge should not have any hysteresis effects in its
response.

(v) In order to maintain constancy of calibration over the entire range of

the strain gauge, it should have linear characteristics i.e., the variations
in resistance should be a linear function of the strain.

(vi) The strain gauges are frequently used for dynamic measurements
and hence their frequency response should be good. The linearity
should be maintained within accuracy limits over the entire
frequency range.
• It consist of following parts:
1. Base (carrier) Materials: several types of base material are used to
support the wires. Impregnated paper is used for room temp.
applications.

2. Adhesive: The adhesive acts as bonding materials. Like other bonding

operation, successful starain gauge bonding depends upon careful
surface preparation and use of the correct bonding agent.

In order that the strain be faithfully transferred on to the strain gauge,

the
bond has to be formed between the surface to be strained and the
plastic backing material on which the gauge is mounted .
.
It is important that the adhesive should be suited to this
backing and adhesive material should be quick
drying type and also insensitive to moisture.

3. Leads: The leads should be of such materials which

have low and stable resistivity and also a low
resistance temperature coefficent
BONDED METAL FOIL STRAIN GAUGE

• This class of strain gauge is only an extension of the

bonded metal wire strain gauges.

• The bonded metal wire starin gauge have been

completely superseded by bonded metal foil strain
gauges.

• Metal foil strain gauge use identical material to wire

strain gauge and are used for most general purpose stress
analysis application and for many transducers.
 grid gauges are designed with fat end turns. This local
increase in area reduces the transverse sensitivity which is a
spurious input since the gauge is designed to measure the
strain component along the length of grid elements.

 For foil type strain gauges, the manufacturing process also easily
provides convenient soldering tabs, which are integral to the
sensing grid, on all four gauges as shown in Fig.

 The smallest gauge sizes are about 0.38 mm long. Foil type of
gauges can be applied to curved surfaces ; the minimum safe
bend radius can be as small as 1.5 mm in some strain gauges.

 Gauges and fastening methods are available to cover

temperature ranges from - 269°C to 816°C.
Hooke's law may be written as :
Strain e =s/ E where G, s and E are respectively the strain, stress and modulus of
elasticity. The units for stress and modulus of elasticity are N/m

A resistance, wire strain gauge with a gauge factor of 2 is bonded to a steel structural
member subjected to a stress of 100 MN/m . The modulus of elasticity of steel is 200
GN/m . Calculate the percentage change in the value of the gauge resistance due to the
applied stress.
A strain gauge is bonded to a beam 0.1 m long and has a cross-sectional area 4 cm .
Young's modulus for. steel is 207 GN/m . The strain gauge has an unstrained resistance of
240 ohms and a gauge factor of 2.2. When a load is applied, the resistance of gauge
changes by 0.013 ohms. Calculate the change in length of the steel beam and the amount
of force applied to the beam.
 SEMICONDUCTOR GAUGE
• Semiconductor gauge are used in application where a high
gauge factor is desired. A high gauge factor means relatively
higher change in resistance that can be measured with good
accuracy.

• The resistance of the semiconductor gauge change as strain is

applied to it. The semiconductor gauge depends for their
action upon the piezo-resistive effect i.e. change in value of
resistance due to change in resistivity.
 Semi-conducting materials such as silicon and germanium are used as resistive
materials for semi-conductor strain gauges. A typical strain gauge consists of a
strain sensitive crystal material and leads that are sandwiched in a protective
matrix.

 The production of these gauges employs conventional semi-conductor technology

using semi-conducting wafers or filaments which have a thickness of 0.05 mm and
bonding them on a suitable insulating substrates, such as teflon.

 Gold leads are generally employed for making the contacts. These strain gauges
can be fabricated along with integrated circuit (IC) operational amplifiers which
can act as pressure sensitive transducers.
Advantages
 Semi-conductor strain gauges have the advantage that they have a high
gauge factor of about ± 130. This allows measurement of very small strains
of the order of 0.01 micro strain.
 Hysteresis characteristics of semi-conductor strain gauges are excellent. Some
units maintain it to less than 0.05%.
  Semi-conductor strain gauges can be very small ranging in length from 0.7
to 7 mm. They are very useful for measurement of local strains.

Disadvantages
(i) The major and serious disadvantage of semi-conductor strain gauges is that they
are very sensitive to changes in temperature.

(ii) Linearity of the semi-conductor strain gauge is poor .

(iii) Semi-conductor strain gauges are more expensive and difficult to attach to the
object under study.
Use of Strain Gauge :

1. In the field of mechanical engineering development.

2. To measure the stress generated by machinery.
3. In the field of component testing of aircraft like; linkages,
structural damage etc.
 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

Resistance Temperature Detector (also known as a Resistance

Thermometer or RTD) is an electronic device used to determine the
temperature by measuring the resistance of an electrical wire.

This wire is referred to as a temperature sensor. If we want to measure

temperature with high accuracy, an RTD is the ideal solution, as it has good
linear characteristics over a wide range of temperatures.

Other common electronics devices used to measure temperature include a

thermocouple or a thermistor.
The variation of resistance of the metal with the variation of the temperature is given
as,

Where, Rt and R0 are the resistance values at toC and t0oC

temperatures. α and β are the constants depends on the metals.
For small range of temperature, the expression can be,

Platinum has the temperature range of 650oC, and then

the Copper and Nickel have 120oC and 300oC
respectively. The figure-1 shows the resistance-
temperature characteristics curve of the three different
metals. For Platinum, its resistance changes by
approximately 0.4 ohms per degree Celsius of
temperature.

The purity of the platinum is checked by measuring

R100 / R0. Because, whatever the materials actually we
are using for making the RTD that should be pure. If it
will not pure, it will deviate from the conventional
resistance-temperature graph. So, α and β values will
change depending upon the metals.
The construction of the resistance
thermometer, the temperature sensitive
resistance element platinum or copper
which is in the form of wire is wound around
a hallow insulating ceramic former.

Protective cement is applied over this

ceramic former. The ends of coil are welded
to copper leads. To measure change in
resistance of the coil, when it is subjected
to temperature, the thermometer is
connected in one of the arms of the
wheatstone bridge.

To provide mechanical strength and rigidity

and to protect the resistance thermometer
assembly from contamination due to high
temperatures, the whole assembly is
placed in a protective metal shield
 THERMISTOR
•A thermistor (or thermal resistor) is defined as a type of
resistor whose electrical resistance varies with changes in
temperature. Although all resistors’ resistance will fluctuate
slightly with temperature, a thermistor is particularly
sensitive to temperature changes.
•Thermistors act as a passive component in a circuit. They
are an accurate, cheap, and robust way to measure
temperature.
•Thermistor are widely used in application which involve
measurement in the range of 0-114ºC Thermistor are
composed of sintered mixture of metallic oxides such as
magnese, nickle, cobalt, copper, iron and uranium
 Uses of Thermistors
Digital thermometers (thermostats)
Automotive applications (to measure oil and coolant temperatures in cars &
trucks)
Household appliances (like microwaves, fridges, and ovens)
Circuit protection (i.e. surge protection)
Rechargeable batteries (ensure the correct battery temperature is maintained)
To measure the thermal conductivity of electrical materials
Useful in many basic electronic circuits (e.g. as part of a beginner Arduino starter
kit)
Temperature compensation (i.e. maintain resistance to compensate for effects
caused by changes in temperature in another part of the circuit)Used in
wheatstone bridge circuits
 Contd.
•The thermistor may be in the form of beads, rods and discs.
•The thermistor provide a large change in resistance for small
change in temperature. In some cases the resistance of
themistor at room temperature may decreases as much as 6%
for each 1ºC rise in temperature.
 WORKING OF THERMISTOR

Here the thermistor is connected to

one of the four arms of the
wheatstone bridge. At the start of
measurement process, some current
whose magnitude is known is made
to pass through the sensing element
of the thermistor and its initial
resistance value is determined with
wheatsone bridge.

when the temperature of the process increases, the thermistor sensing

element will be heated which causes its resistance to decrease.
Similarly when the temperature of the process decreases the
resistance of the thermistor sensing element increases. The variation of
resistance sensing element is determined by wheatstone bridge. Here
the change of resistance is displayed by the output device and the
displayed signal gives the measurement of the temperature of the
process
There are two types of thermistors:

Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) Thermistor

Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) Thermistor

In an NTC thermistor, when the temperature increases, resistance decreases.

And when temperature decreases, resistance increases. Hence in an NTC
thermistor temperature and resistance are inversely proportional. These are
the most common type of thermistor.
PTC Thermistor
A PTC thermistor has the reverse relationship between temperature and resistance.
When temperature increases, the resistance increases.

And when temperature decreases, resistance decreases.

MERITS OF THERMISTOR:
1) exhibits high sensitivity
2) provides fast response
3) can be used to measure high temperature.
4 sze is small and cost is low.
5) lead wire compensation is not required
6) high accuracy and can with stand electrical and mechanical stresses
7) can be used with simple resistance measuring circuits.

DEMRITS OFTHERMISTOR:
1) exhibits non-linear characteristics
2) stability is low
3) problem of a ‗Gain effect‘
( increase in the resistance of
thermistor when time lapses)
 Thermocouples
See beck Effect
When a pair of dissimilar metals are joined at one end, and there is
a temperature difference between the joined ends and the open
ends, thermal emf is generated, which can be measured in the open
ends.
This forms the basis of thermocouples.
A thermocouple consists of two plates of different metals. Both plates are connected at one
end and make a junction.

The junction is placed on the element or surface where we want to measure the temperature.
This junction is known as a hot junction. And the second end of the plate is kept at a lower
temperature (room temperature). This junction is known as a cold junction or reference
junction.

According to the Seebeck effect, the temperature difference between the two different metals
induces the potential differences between two points of the thermocouple plates.

If the circuit is closed, a very small amount of current will flow through the circuit. A voltmeter
is connected to the circuit. The voltage measured by the voltmeter is a function of a
temperature difference between two junctions.

Hence, by measuring the voltage, we can calculate the temperature of the hot junction.
ADVANTAGES OF THERMOCOUPLE:
1) Can measure fast changes in the temperature.
2) Produces electrical outputs.
3) It is an active transducer ie no need of any excitation to operate.
4) Can be used to measure wide ranges of temp from 0 0 C to 1400
0C
5) The temperature of a particular point can be measured.

DISADVANTAGES:

1) Produces low output voltage in terms of milivolts

2) Accuracy of measurement is low
3) The output voltage is affected by stray magnetic field.
4) The extension wires should be made of those materials which
are used in the construction of
thermocouple.
APPLICATIONS OF THERMOCOUPLE
• used to measure thermal conductivity
• Can be used in the measurement of pressure, level, and flow of liquids and to
know the composition of gases.
• Can be applied to measure vacuum.
• Applied in the measurement of voltage and currents.
 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSFORMER(LVDT)
• AN LVDT transducer
comprises a coil former on to
which three coils are
wound.
• The primary coil is excited
with an AC current, the
secondary coils are wound
such that when a ferrite
core is in the central linear
position, an equal voltage is
induced in to each coil.
• The secondary are connected
in opposite so that in the
central position the outputs
of the secondary cancels
each other out.
The most widely used inductive transducer to translate the linear motion into
electrical signals is the Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT). The basic
construction of LVDT is shown in Fig. The transformer consists of a single primary
winding ‘P’ and two secondary windings S1 and S2 wound on a cylindrical former. A
sinusoidal voltage of amplitude 3 to 15 Volt and frequency 50 to 20000 Hz is used to
excite the primary. The two secondary's have equal number of turns and are
identically placed on either side of the primary winding
The primary winding is connected to an alternating current source. A movable soft-iron
core is placed inside the former. The displacement to be measured is applied to the arm
attached to the soft iron core. In practice the core is made of high permeability, nickel iron
This is slotted longitudinally to reduce eddy current losses. The assembly is placed in a
stainless steel housing to provide electrostatic and electromagnetic shielding. The freque
of ac signal applied to primary winding may be between 50 Hz to 20 kHz
Since the primary winding is excited by an alternating current source, it produces an
alternating magnetic field which in turn induces alternating voltages in the two secondary
windings.
The output voltage of secondary S1is ES1 and that of secondary S2 is ES2
. In order to convert the outputs from S1 and S2
into a single voltage signal, the two secondary S1 and S2 are connected in series
opposition as shown in Figure. Differential output voltage E0 = ES1 − ES2
When the core is at its normal (NULL) position, the
flux linking with both the secondary
windings is equal and hence equal emfs are
induced in them. Thus, at null position: ES1 =
ES2
. Thus, the output voltage E0 is zero at null
position.

Now if the core is moved to the left of the null

position, more flux links with S1 and less
with winding S2 Accordingly, output voltages ES1
is greater than ES2 E0 is +ve.
. The magnitude of output voltage is thus, E0 = ES1
− ES2 and say it is in phase with primary voltage.
Similarly, when the core is moved to the right of the null position ES2 will be more than ES1
. Thus the output voltage is E0 = ES1 − ES2 and 180° out of phase with primary voltage. E0 is -ve

The amount of voltage change in either secondary winding is proportional to the amount of
movement of the core. Hence, we have an indication of amount of linear
motion. By noticing whether output voltage is increased or decreased, we can determine
the direction of motion.
A linear curve shows that output voltage varies linearly with displacement of core.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of LVDT

Advantages

• Linearity is good up to 5 mm of displacement.

• Output is rather high. Therefore, immediate amplification is not
necessary.
• Output voltage is step less and hence the resolution is very good.
• Sensitivity is high (about 40 V/mm).
• It does not load the measurand mechanically.
• It consumes low power and low hysteresis loss also.

Disadvantages

• LVDT has large threshold.

• It is affected by stray electromagnetic fields. Hence proper shielding of
the device is necessary.
• The ac inputs generate noise.
• Its sensitivity is lower at higher temperature.
• Being a first-order instrument, its dynamic response is not
instantaneous.
 APPLICATIONS
Defense Satellites and Launch Systems
In terms of defense satellites, a benefit we get from using LVDTs is that they help
position satellite panels towards the sun. This helps us get the energy from the sun on
to the satellites, to keep them floating in space.

Valve Pitch Actuators

As far as valve pitch actuators are concerned, LVDTs play a major role in their overall
functionality. For instance, the sensor serves as a tool for confirming that the valve
actuator has moved in the proper position, ensuring it functioned properly.

Engine Bleed Air Systems

When it comes to engine bleed air systems, they are used to help regulate the amount
of air being bled into the system. This is how it creates energy and uses fuel to
optimize the engine's performance.
Fuel Controls
As far as fuel controls are concerned, a LVDT helps to ensure the fuel is being
optimally used at all times. Thus, making sure it’s releasing the fuel at the
optimum time of performance, giving you the proper performance to fuel
ratio.

Thrust Vector Control

When it comes to the thrust vector control, the LVDT is essentially positioning
the vector on the bottom of the missile or rocket. This way it’s moving the
direction of the thrust from the engine to control the altitude of the aircraft, or
the angular velocity of the rocket.

Valve Position Feedback

Lastly, a linear displacement transducer provides feedback in terms of the
valve position to show that they're helping to control the actuator and that
they're helping to monitor/ manage the valve position
 BIOMEDICAL SENSORS OR TRANSDUCERS

Non-electrical parameters such as temperature, heart sound, blood pressure are

measured from the human body with electronic equipment. Transducers are the
devices that convert biological parameters to electrical signals. The process of
conversion is Transduction. Generally, transducers convert one form of energy into
another form of energy.
We can measure pulsatile blood volume change with a Photo detector.
To detect the pulse, we can either use Transmittance or Reflectance
techniques as shown in the figure. In transmittance technique, pulsating
blood flow modifies the optical density. In reflectance technique, blood
flow changes the intensity of reflected light. The changes in blood flow
are seen immediately with these methods.
Blood pressure can be measured with Photo detectors as shown in the figure.
At the free end of a bourdon tube between lamp and photodiode, a shade is
attached. Bourdon tube is filled using a saline solution. Pressure is created
inside the tube due to blood pressure. As the blood pressure increases, the
pressure inside the tube displaces the shade. This displacement is
proportional to the output from the phototube.
 SMART SENSORS

• In these sensors, the sensing elements &

electronics are integrated on the same chip.

• So, the integration of electronics and sensors

to make an intelligent sensor is known as
a smart sensor.

• These sensors have many benefits like higher

S/N ratio, fast signal conditioning, auto-
calibration, self-testing, high reliability, small
physical size, detection & prevention of failure.
Define Smart Sensors?
• A smart sensor is a device that uses a
transducer to gather particular data from a
physical environment to perform a predefined
& programmed function on the particular type
of gathered data then it transmits the data
through a networked connection.
• The features of the smart sensor are;
self-identification, digital sensor data, smart
calibration & compensation, multi-sensing
capacity, sensor communication for
configuration of remote & remote monitoring,
etc.
Smart Sensor Working Principle
Smart sensors work by capturing data from
physical environments & changing their physical
properties like speed, temperature, pressure,
mass, or presence of humans into calculable
electrical signals. These sensors include a Digital
Motion Processor (DMP). Here a DMP is one
type of microprocessor that allows the sensor to
perform onboard processing of the smart sensor
data like filtering noise otherwise performing
different kinds of signal conditioning.
These sensors have 4 main functions measurement,
configuration, verification & communication.
•Measurements are simply taken through detecting physical
signals & changing them into electrical signals. So this will
help in monitoring and measuring things like temperature,
traffic, & industrial applications.
•Configuration function is a significant feature as it allows the
smart sensor to detect position or installation errors
•The verification function has different uses like nonstop
supervision of sensor behavior, using a set of supervisory
circuits or equipment executed within the sensor.
•Lastly, the communication feature allows the sensor to
converse to the main microcontroller/ microprocessor.
Smart Sensor Block Diagram
Sensing Unit
This unit detects the changes in physical parameters & generates electrical signals equivalent
to it. Signal
Conditioning Unit
The signal conditioning unit controls the signal to meet the necessities of next-level operations
without losing data.
Analog to Digital Converter
ADC converts the signal from analog to digital format & sends it to the microprocessor.

Local User Interface

The local user interface or LUI is a panel-mounted device used to allow building operators to
monitor & control system equipment.
Application Algorithm
The signals from smart sensors reach here & process the received data based on the
application programs previously loaded here & generate output signals.
Memory
It is used to store media for saving received & processed data.

Communication Unit
The output signals from the application algorithm or microprocessor are transmitted to the
main station through the communication unit. This unit also gets command requirements
from the key station to execute specific tasks.
Difference between Normal Sensor & Smart Sensor

Sensors Smart Sensors

A sensor doesn’t include a DMP A smart sensor includes a DMP or
or digital motion processor. Digital Motion Processor.

The normal sensor includes three Smart sensors include different

components like sensor element, components like amplifiers,
packaging & connections, and transducers, analog filters,
also signals processing hardware. excitation control, and
compensation sensors.

Normal sensor output cannot be The output of the smart sensor is

used directly because we should ready to use.
convert it into a usable format.

Normal sensors are not expensive Smart sensors are expensive as

because they contain fewer compared to normal sensors
components.
Advantages
The advantages of the smart sensor include the following.

•These are small in size

•These sensors are very easy to use, design & maintain

•The performance level is higher

•Speed of communication & reliability is higher due to the direct conversion

with the processor.

•These sensors can perform self-calibration & self-assessments.

•These sensors can notice issues like switch failures, open coils & sensor
contamination.

•These sensors optimize manufacturing processes easily that need

changes.

•They can store many systems’ data.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of the smart sensor include the
following.
•Smart sensors’ reliability is one of the major drawbacks
because if they are stolen or get damaged then they can
affect a lot of systems badly.
•It needs both sensors & actuators.

•Sensor calibration has to be managed by an external

processor.
•High complexity in wired smart sensors, so the cost is also
very high
APPLICATIONS:

Smart sensors are used mainly for monitoring & control

mechanisms in different environments like water level & food
monitoring systems, smart grids, traffic monitoring & control,
environmental monitoring, conserving energy in artificial
lighting, monitoring of the remote system, and fault diagnostics
of equipment, transport & logistics, agriculture,
telecommunications, industrial applications, animal tracking,
etc.
 INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS

Instrument transformers are used in connection with measurement of voltage,

current, energy and power in ac circuits.
There are principally two reasons for use of instrument transformers in
measurement:
first, to extend (multiply) the range of the measuring
instrument and
second, to isolate the measuring instrument from a high-voltage line.
 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS (CT)

The primary winding of a current transformer is connected in series with the line
carrying the main current. The secondary winding of the CT, where the current is many
times stepped down, is directly connected across an ammeter, for measurement of
current; or across the current coil of a wattmeter, for measurement of power; or across
the current coil of a watt-hour meter for measurement of energy; or across a relay coil.

The primary winding of a CT has only few turns, such that there is no appreciable
voltage drop across it, and the main circuit is not disturbed. The current flowing
through the primary coil of a CT, i.e., the main circuit current is primarily determined by
the load connected to the main circuit and not by the load (burden) connected to the
CT secondary.
 Potential Transformer
 Potential transformers are also known as voltage step-down
transformers or voltage transformers or instrument transformer, in
which the voltage of a circuit is reduced to a lower voltage for
measurement.

 The electromagnetic device used for the transformation of the

higher voltage of the circuit to the lower voltage is called a potential
transformer.

 The potential transformer consists of primary winding with more

turns and secondary winding with less number of turns.

 The high input AC voltage is given to the primary winding (or

connected to the high voltage circuit to measure).

 The lower output voltage is taken across the secondary winding by

using a voltmeter. The two windings are magnetically coupled to
each other without any connection between them.
Applications of Potential Transformers

 Used in relay and metering circuits

 Uses in power line carrier communication circuits

 Used in protection systems electrically

 Used for protecting feeders

 Used for the protection of impedance in the generators

 Used in synchronization of generators and feeders.

 Used as protection voltage transformers

Instrument Transformers
Advantages of Instrument Transformers
The current and voltage transformers are extensively used for
very precise measurements as well as for routine measurements
as they have many
advantages and these are :
(i) When instruments are used in conjunction with instrument
transformers, their readings do not depend upon their
constants (R, L, C) as is the case with shunts and
multipliers.
(ii) The instrument transformers produce practically the same
instrument reading regardless of the constants of the
instrument or, in fact, the number of instruments connected
in the circuit.
(ii) Current transformers have been standardized at 5 A
secondary winding current and the voltage transformers at
from 100 to 120 V secondary winding
voltage.
These are very moderate ratings and the instruments for
measurements are rated near these.
Thus a 5 A ammeter may be used to measure 1000 A
with the help of a 1000/5 A ratio current transformer or
a 110 V voltmeter may be used to measure a voltage of
66 kV with the help of a 66,000/110 V potential
transformer.
Therefore, very cheap moderate rating
instruments may be used to measure large currents
and high voltages.