Adama Science and Technology University

College of Applied Natural Science

Department of Applied Geology

Course Title: Geophysics

Introduction

By Abdela B. (MSc)

Adama, Ethiopia
At the end of this chapter the students will able to:

 Define Geophysics
 understand the difference between the physical process and
physical properties
 Identify type of geophysics
 Identify the application of geophysical methods
 differentiate active (artificial), and passive(natural) sources of
geophysical methods
Brainstorming: Discuss in group and answer the
following questions
1. What is Geophysics?
2. Define Geophysicist. Discuss the tools geophysicists use.
2. Why is geophysics so important for the geologists?
 Introduction
What is Geophysics?
 Geophysics is one of the major geosciences that applies
principles of physics to the study of the earth.
 Geophysics integrates with the knowledge of the primarily
coming from (is an incorporation of) Geology, and physics.
 Geophysical investigations of the interior of the Earth involve
taking measurements at or near the Earth’s surface that are
influenced by the internal distribution of physical properties.
 Analysis of these measurements can reveal how the physical
properties of the Earth’s interior vary vertically and laterally.
 Introduction
What is Geophysics?
 Typically, Geophysics is concerned with the physical
processes and physical properties of the Earth.
 Physical processes are the natural forces that change
Earth's physical features: volcanic activity, and earthquake
 Physical properties of subsurface materials: density,
resistivity, conductivity, magnetic susceptibility,
chargeability, and dielectric constant can be retrieved from
observational measurements of the corresponding physical
field such as gravity, magnetic field, and electrical fields.
 Cont`………….

What is Geophysics?
Physical properties of subsurface materials
 Cont`………….
Why is Geophysics so important?
 Mapping large geological areas to increase our knowledge
of the Earth's structure.
 Locating and recovering resources: Hydrocarbons,
minerals, and groundwater.
 Assessing the risk of geohazards: Earthquakes, and
landslides.
 Archeological surveys
 Site investigation ( geotechnical and engineering studies)
 Environmental waste detection
 Cont`……….
 The are two scientific areas of Geophysics: based on the ranges
and objectives of the investigations:

Geophysical Methods
Global Geophysics

Applied Geophysics

1
 Cont`…………

Global Geophysics
-It deals with large-scale problems and global observations

- It is earth physics that deals with the shape of the earth, its
interior structure, and plate tectonics
-Gravity, seismic, magnetotelluric, and radiometric dating are
the most important geophysical methods that can be applied it.
 Cont`…………………..
Solving different
practical problems
Applied in the
Near surface mining industry, site
geophysics(gravity, investigation,
magnetic, seismic, groundwater,
electrical resistivity ) geothermal, and HC
and well logging investigation

Small scale study

Applied Investigation
depth(limited upper
Geophysics part of crust): 100m
 Cont`…………….
Geophysical Sources

Geophysical
sources

Active Passive
source(Artificial) source(Natural)

`
 Cont`………………
What do geophysicists actually do?
 Geophysical is the application of physics that studies the earth by
taking measurement at or near the surface of the earth ( Nazri, M.A.A.
et al., 2012).
 Geophysicists connect the physical processes that we see and
experience on the surface of the earth like volcanoes, and earthquakes,
to the processes driven by the earth’s interior properties.
 Geophysics examines what is inside the earth at large and small
scales by conducting a survey and generating a map of the earth’s
physical fields.
 Cont`………………
Geophysics practically work Activities
Data acquisitions

Data processing

Data interpretation
Adama Science and Technology University
School of Applied Natural Science
Department of Applied Geology

Course Title: Geophysics

Chapter 1: Earth`s Gravity

By Abdela B. (MSc)

Oct 16, 2024

Adama, Ethiopia
 Outline
 Newtons law of gravitational and gravity
 Gravity potential and acceleration
 Gravity of the Earth
 Earth`s Shape and Compositions
 Normal gravity and gravity anomalies
 Observed gravity and calculated gravity anomalies
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to :
 Different gravitational force and gravitational field

 understand the gravity of the Earth, Earth’s shape, and

compositions
 An understanding of the basic theory principle of the Gravity
method
 Define gravity anomalies

 Differentiate Normal gravity and normal gravity anomaly

 Differentiate between the gravity anomalies Vs geoid anomalies

 Understand the Flexure of the Lithosphere and viscosity of the

mantle
Brainstorming: Discus in group and attempt to
answer the following questions:
1. What is gravity?

2. Compare and contrast gravitational force Vs. Gravitational field

3. What is gravitational potential?

4. Why is the gravity of the earth maximum at the pole and minimum at the

equator?

5. What are the reasons different subsurface materials have variations of density?

6. What is gravity anomalies?

7. What are the main causes for the generation of gravity anomalies?
 Newton's Law, Gravity
 The basis theory of the Gravity : Newton’s Law of Gravitation.
 Newton`s Law of Gravitation states that the force of attraction (F)
between two masses () and ( whose dimensions are small with respect
to the distance (r) between them, is given by:

F = (1.1)
Where, G is the Gravitational Constant ( ,
 Cont`……………..
 Suppose, consider the gravitational attraction of a spherical, non-
rotating, homogeneous Earth of mass (M) and radius (R)on a small
mass (m) on its surface.
 It is relatively simple to show that the mass of a sphere acts as
though it were concentrated at the Centre of the sphere.

F = = mg
 Force is related to mass by an acceleration and the term
g = is known as the gravitational acceleration or
gravity.
 Gravity potential and Acceleration
 The gravitational potential (U) is the potential energy of a unit mass
in a field of gravitational attraction.
 Acceleration due to gravity is the acceleration gained by an object
due to gravitational force .
 Acceleration due to gravity is represented by g.
 On an Earth surface , gravity is constant: 9.8 m/s 2
 However, the Earth’s ellipsoidal shape, rotation, irregular surface
relief and internal mass distribution cause gravity to vary over its
sub-surface.
 Gravity potential and Acceleration
 Gravity measurements are a reflection of the earth's gravitational
attraction: its centripetal force, tidal accelerations due to the sun,
moon, and planets
 The gravitational potential (U) of a point mass M:
U =-G =G =g
 Cont`……………
 The acceleration due to gravity (g) in a three-dimensional vector.
 If we are using Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z), the acceleration due to
gravity(g) will have components (𝑔_𝑥, 𝑔_𝑦, 𝑔_𝑧)
 These maybe computed by calculating separately the derivatives of the
gravitational potential with respect to x, y and z:
g =-, where U = G

Fig.1.1 : (a) Each small particle of a solid body exerts a

gravitational attraction in a different direction at an external point
P. (b) Computation of the gravitational potential of a continuous
 Gravity of the Earth
 Suppose, shape of the earth is perfect spherical:
 The gravitational acceleration towards the Earth is then given by:
g =G where, is mass of the earth and r is the radius of the
earth.
 At the Earth’s surface, the acceleration due to gravity has a value of
about 9.81 .
 The first person to measured the Earth’s gravity was Galileo.
 A celebrated legend is that he conducted his experiments by dropping
objects from the top of the leaning tower in Pisa and timing their falls
to the ground.
 Cont`………
 What is the gravity on earth surface, inside the earth, and at center of the Earth?

• Gravity on the earth surface: g =G

• Gravity inside the earth: g = , g = , , V= , then
g = )=
g =G
• Gravity at center of earth: no gravity at center of the earth
 A force at center of earth of the earth = 0, no gravitational force at center of earth and no gravity at
 Cont`……….
 If the Earth were perfectly spherical and not rotating, the gravitational
acceleration would have the same value at every point on its surface.
 However, the Earth is not a perfect sphere (it bulges at the equator and
is flattened at the poles) and it is rotating.
 The Earth’s shape can be approximated by an oblate spheroid,
 The surface that is generated by revolving an ellipse about its minor
(shorter) axis
 The ellipticity/ polar flattening(f) of an ellipse is defined as:
f= where, and are the equatorial (longer) and polar
(shorter) radius, respectively.
 The oblate spheroid that best approximates the Earth’s shape
 The ‘radius’ of an oblate spheroid is given, to first order in f, by:
r= (1-f) where, f is the ellipticity ( flattening) , λ
is the latitude and is the equatorial radius.
 Cont`……………
 The fact that the Earth is spinning about its axis means that the value of the
gravitational acceleration on its surface is reduced.
 Centrifugal acceleration means that the gravitational acceleration on a sphere
rotating with angular frequency( ω),
 grot, is less than that on a non-rotating sphere, g is dependent on latitude(λ): = g-
λ
 The gravitational acceleration on a rotating oblate spheroid can also be calculated
mathematically.
 The reference gravity formula adopted by the International Association of Geodesy
in 1967 is:
g(λ) = (1 + α λ + β λ) where, the gravitational acceleration at the equator ) is 9.780
318 5 and the constants are α = 5.278 895 × and β = 2.3462 ×
 The Earth shape and Composition
Earth Shape:
 The Earth is neither a perfect sphere nor a perfect oblate spheroid

 This just means that it flattens at the poles and widens out at the equator.

 Earth bulges at the equator because of the centrifugal force during

rotation.
 The effective acceleration of gravity at the poles is 980.665 (maximum)

 while at the equator it is 3.39 (minimum) less due to the centrifugal

force.
 Because the poles are closer to the center of the earth due to the earth's
oblateness (rounded shape that is flat at the pole) .
 Cont`…………………..
Earth Shape:

Fig. 1.2: Newton’s argument that the shape of the rotating Earth should be flattened
at the poles and bulge at the equator was based on hydrostatic equilibrium between
polar and equatorial pressure columns (after Strahler, 1963).
 Cont`……………..
Earth Size:

 Earth radius is the distance from the center of Earth to a point on or

near its surface.

 The Earth is widest at its Equator: Earth's diameter is also wider at

the Equator

 Equatorial radius: 6,378 km (3,963 mi)

 Polar radius: 6,357 km (3,950 mi)

Fig. 1.2: Comparison of the dimensions of the International Reference

 Cont`……
Earth Compositions:
 The structure of the earth: the crust, the mantle, the outer core, and the inner
core .
 Each layer has a unique chemical composition, physical state, and can impact
life on Earth's surface.
 Cont`………………
Earth Composition:
 The crust, the outermost layer, is rigid and very thin compared with
the other two.
 Beneath the oceans, the crust varies in thickness: average 5 km
 The thickness of the crust beneath continents is much more
variable but averages about 30 km
 under large mountain ranges, such as the Alps or the Sierra Nevada
the base of the crust can be as deep as 100 km.
 The Earth's crust is brittle and can break.
 The entire mantle is about 1800 miles thick
 Density of the Rocks
 The densities of rocks naturally, depends on the mineral composition
of particular rock.
 However, It is not only mineral composition, but also: porosity ,
weathering rocks , fracture, and joint.
 Increasing porosity decreases the density, since air ( any other media
filling the pores (water, gas, oil, etc.) has lower density than any of
minerals.
Density of the Rocks
Cont`…….
 Cont`…………

 The gravimeter is the measuring instrument of the gravitational

field of Earth at specific locations.
 The instrument works on the principle of measuring constant
downward acceleration of gravity
Gravimeters

Relative gravimeter: spring balance

constant mass, Lacoste and
Romberg

Absolute gravimeter: pendulum

and failing mass
 Normal gravity
 The main causes for normal gravity is two:

1. It is caused by the Earth’s centrifugal force being added to the gravitational force .

- This decreases the gravitational force with an increase of a radius of rotation.

- The smallest gravitational force is at the equator (maximal centrifugal force) and the
largest is on the pole(minimum centrifugal force).

2. The gravitational force is further affected by the fact that the Earth is not spherical but
ellipsoidal.

-This further decreases the gravitational force on the equator

 Both of these effects could be removed by the International Gravity Formula.
 They allow calculation of normal gravity at any latitude with an accuracy of 0.1 mgal
 About 40% of this variation of gravity with latitude (λ) is a result of the difference in
shape between the spheroid with the best-fitting ellipticity and a perfect sphere
 The remaining 60% of the variation is due to the Earth’s rotation
Cont`………….
 Gravity Anomalies
 Operative physical property: density contrast

 Measured physical property: Earth gravitational field (gravity) in (mGal)

 Ground-based gravimeters are used to precisely measure the variation of the

gravity field at different points.
 In gravity surveying, subsurface geological material is investigated on the
basis of variations in Earth’s gravitational field arising from density
contrast between the subsurface rocks.
 A causative body represents a subsurface zone of anomalous mass and causes
a localized perturbation in the gravitational field known as a gravity
anomaly.
 Gravity anomalous responds mainly horizontal mass density variation
 Main application is mapping density of subsurface distribution
 Cont`…..

Gravity data Reduction

.
 Cont`……………….
 The Earth’s rotation and flattening cause gravity to increase by
roughly 5300 mgal from equator to pole, which is a variation of only
about 0.5%.
 Gravity anomalies a difference between the locally observed and the
theoretically calculated value of gravity that reflects local variations
in density of underlying rocks.
 Interpretation of gravity anomalies allows an assessment to be made
of the probable depth and shape of the causative body.
 Cont.`….

Fig.1.4: Showing gravimetry profiles showing possible occurrence of an underground cavity(Jan

 Cont`……
Gravity Anomalies

Fig. 1. 5 Showing observed and calculated gravity anomalies

 Cont`……….
Case study: Rudabanya Mineral exploration(Hungary)
 The Bouguer anomaly map shows a big contrast between a high and a low gravity area.
However, the Darnó zone is characterized by relative homogenous gravity anomaly values
from 0 to 8 m Gal.
 The eastern limit of the Darnó zone is related to the high gravity anomaly, values from 10
to 22 m Gal, which can be related by a metamorphic high-density compacted unit.
 the western limit is delimited in the southern part for a gravity low, 0 to -2 m Gal, related
to a sedimentary basin,
 in the northern part to a medium value related to the basaltic intrusions
Gravity anomalies (effects) selected Bodies
1. Bouger slab model
 1D model, laterally infinite length

 Independent of measuring point on the surface below

 Gravity effect of the slab Is: Δg = 2GhΔ

 Cont`………..
1. Gravity effect of a sphere model

 A sphere is the most basic body and usually is used as a part of other models or could approximate symmetrical bodies.

 The longest dimension of the body is much smaller than its depth For instance - void, buried object, ore body etc (see

Fig.1.11)

 Gravity effect of sphere with radius R:= ∆sin

M= =

 The depth of the sphere center could be estimated from the half-width of the anomaly at half of its value

 At depth of the body (z):

=)

z= 0.652 w
 Cont`………..
Gravity effect of a horizontal rod model

 , anticlinal etc.

 Gravity effect of the cylinder with radius (R):(]

 At the depth( z) of the body: = ( Z=0.5 w

 Application of Gravity Method
 Hydrocarbon exploration: Oil and Gas
 Mineral exploration: Au, Ag
 Geothermal and groundwater exploration
 Site Investigation:
 Regional geological studies: mapping geological structure
 Detection of sub-surface cavities (microgravity)
 Mapping geological structures
I Thank you for your Attention!
 References
[Link], C. M.R.(2004) The solid Earth : An introduction to Geophysical , 2 nd edition.
Blackwell Science Ltd
2. Jan Valenta , (2015) Introduction to Geophysics – Lecture Notes
3. Kearey P., Brooks M. and Hill I., 2002: An Introduction to Geophysical Exploration. 3rd
edition. Blackwell Science Ltd
4. W. Lowrie(2007): Fundamentals of Geophysics, Cambridge University pres.
5. Nettleton L. L., 1939. Determination of density for reduction of gravimeter observations,
Geophysics,
6. Telford W. M., Geldart L. P. and Sheriff R. E., 1990. Applied geophysics. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Nazri, M.A.A. et al., 2012. Authentication relation between surface-groundwater in kerian
irrigation canal system, perak using integrated geophysical, water balance and isotope
method. Procedia Engineering, 50(October 2016), pp.284–296.