Length–Tension Relationship

• length of about 2.0–2.4 m (which is very close to

the resting length in most muscles), the zone of
sarcomere lengths become overlap in each sarcomere is optimal, and the
increasingly shorter than the muscle fiber can develop maximum tension
optimum  thick filaments
crumple as they are compressed
by the Z discs  resulting in
fewer myosin heads making
• As the sarcomeres of a
contact with thin filaments  muscle fiber are stretched 
the tension that can develop the zone of overlap
again decreases shortens  fewer myosin
heads can make contact
with thin filaments  the
tension the fiber can
produce decreases.
Clinical Correlation
• Botulinum toxin
• produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum
• blocks exocytosis of synaptic vesicles at the NMJ  ACh is not released 
muscle contraction does not occur
• first bacterial toxin to be used as a medicine
• BOTOX
• Injection into the muscle can cause the muscle to relax
• strabismus (crossed eyes)
• blepharospasm (uncontrollable blinking)
• spasms of the vocal cords that interfere with speech
• alleviate chronic back pain due to muscle spasms in the lumbar region
• cosmetic treatment to relax muscles that cause facial wrinkles
Clinical Correlation
• Curare
• poison used by South American Indians on arrows and blowgun darts
• causes muscle paralysis
• by binding to and blocking ACh receptors
• Anticholinesterase agents
• slowing the enzymatic activity of acetylcholinesterase
• Slows down removal of ACh from the synaptic cleft
• Low doses of these agents can strengthen weak muscle contractions
• Neostigmine
• treat patients with myasthenia gravis
• Used as an antidote for curare poisoning and to terminate the effects of curare-like drugs
MUSCLE METABOLISM
Creatine Phosphate
• one of the high-energy phosphate groups from ATP to creatine,

• Catalyzed by
creatine kinase
(CK)

• forming creatine phosphate and ADP.

• Creatine phosphate is three to six times more plentiful than ATP in the sarcoplasm
of a relaxed muscle fiber
• formation of ATP from creatine phosphate occurs very rapidly
• Creatine phosphate is the first source of energy when muscle contraction begins
• stores of creatine phosphate and ATP provide enough energy for muscles to
contract maximally for about 15 second
Anaerobic Glycolysis
• Glucose is catabolized to generate ATP
• Sources of glucose
• From the blood  enters the muscle via facilitated diffusion
• Glycogen storage in the muscles

• GLYCOLYSIS
• Chemical process of breaking down glucose
• End products are 2 molecules of ATP & 2 molecules of Lactic
acid
• Occurs in the cytoplasm
• Occurs without oxygen  Anaerobic
• provides enough energy for about 2 minutes of maximal
muscle activity.
 Aerobic Respiration
• Pyruvic acid formed by glycolysis  enters the
mitochondria  Krebs cycle and the electron
transport chain  produces ATP, carbon
dioxide, water, and heat
• Slower than anaerobic glycolysis
• Yields much more ATP
• A molecule of glucose  yields about 30 or 32
molecules of ATP
• In activities that last from several minutes to
an hour or more, aerobic respiration provides
nearly all of the needed ATP
• oxygen debt has been used to refer to the added oxygen, over and
above the resting oxygen consumption, that is taken into the body after
exercise
Elevated use of oxygen after
exercise- Oxygen Debt
• Heavy breathing continues for a while
• Oxygen consumption remains above the resting level
• Oxygen use after exercise also is boosted by ongoing changes
• the elevated body temperature after strenuous exercise increases the rate of chemical
reactions throughout the body. Faster reactions use ATP more rapidly, and more oxygen
is needed to produce the ATP.
• the heart and the muscles used in breathing are still working harder than they were at
rest, and thus they consume more ATP.
• tissue repair processes are occurring at an increased pace
 CONTRACTION PERIOD
REFRACTORY PERIOD • lasts 10–100 msec
• Ca2 binds to troponin, myosin-binding sites
on actin are exposed, and cross-bridges form
• Peak tension develops in the muscle fiber.

RELAXATION PERIOD
LATENT PERIOD - delay • 0–100 msec
occurs between the • Ca2 is actively transported
application of the stimulus back into the sarcoplasmic
and the beginning of the reticulum, myosin-binding
contraction sites are covered by
Refractory Period
• When a muscle fiber receives enough stimulation to contract, it
temporarily loses its excitability and cannot respond for a time when
a stimulus is applied immediately after the other
• characteristic of all muscle and nerve cells
• Skeletal muscle has a short refractory period of about 5 msec
• Cardiac muscle has a longer refractory period of about 300 msec
 FUSED (COMPLETE) TETANUS
Frequency stimulation • skeletal muscle fiber is
stimulated at a higher rate of 80
UNFUSED (INCOMPLETE) TETANUS to 100 times per second
• produces a jagged curve due to partial • does not relax at all
relaxation of the muscle fiber between • Result in sustained contraction
stimuli in which individual twitches
• skeletal muscle fiber is stimulated at a cannot be detected
rate of 20 to 30 times per second
• can only partially relax between stimuli.

• WAVE SUMMATION - when a second

stimulus occurs before the muscle fiber
has relaxed it produces a second
contraction that is stronger than the first
• ISOTONIC CONTRACTION
• the tension (force of contraction) developed in the muscle remains almost
constant while the muscle changes its length
• used for body movements and moving object
• 2types
• concentric isotonic contraction
• Contraction the muscle shortens and pulls on another structure, such as a tendon, to
produce movement and to reduce the angle at a joint.
• Example – picking up a book
• eccentric isotonic contraction
• the length of a muscle increases during a contraction
• ISOMETRIC CONTRACTION
• the tension generated is not enough to exceed the resistance of the object to
be moved, and the muscle does not change its length
• are important for maintaining posture and for supporting objects in a fixed
position.
• they stabilize some joints as others move
Changes in the fibers in a skeletal
muscle brought about by exercise
• Endurance type (aerobic) exercises
• gradual transformation of some FG fibers into fast oxidative glycolytic (FOG)
fibers
• transformed muscle fibers show slight increases in diameter, number of
mitochondria, blood supply, and strength.
• result in cardiovascular and respiratory changes that cause skeletal muscles to
receive better supplies of oxygen and nutrients
• Do not increase muscle mass
• Exercises that require great strength for short periods
• produce an increase in the size and strength of FG fibers
• increase in size is due to increased synthesis of thick and thin filaments. The
overall result is muscle enlargement (hypertrophy)
Effective Stretching
• Stretching cold muscles does not increase flexibility and may cause injury
• Warm up the muscle
• Tissues stretch best when slow, gentle force is applied at elevated tissue
temperatures
• External sources of heat, such as hot packs or ultrasound
• 10 or more minutes of muscular contraction is also a good way to raise muscle
temperature
• Exercise heats muscle more deeply and thoroughly than external measures.
• Greater elasticity contributes to a greater degree of flexibility
• Stretching exercises must be performed regularly—daily, if possible—for
many weeks.
 Strength Training
• The process of exercising with progressively heavier resistance to strengthen the musculoskeletal
system
• Results
• Stronger muscles
• Increase bone strength
• by increasing the deposition of bone minerals in young adults and preventing, or at least slowing bone loss in later life.
• Increases muscle mass
• Raises resting metabolic rate -the amount of energy expended at rest
• a person can eat more food without gaining weight
• Prevent back injury and other injuries from participation in sports and other physical activities
• Psychological benefits
• Reductions in feelings of stress and fatigue.
• Builds exercise tolerance
• takes increasingly longer before lactic acid is produced in the muscle, resulting in a reduced probability of muscle spasms
Sports Physiology
• Sub-discipline of exercise science and physiology that
focuses on understanding the physiological processes and
adaptations that occur in the human body in response to:
• Physical activity
• Exercise
• Sports performance.
• Study of how various systems of the body function during
exercise and how they adapt over time with training.
• Cardiovascular
• Respiratory
• Muscular
• Endocrine systems
Female vs. Male Athletes
• Muscle strength, pulmonary ventilation, and cardiac output,
• vary between two-thirds and three-quarters of the values recorded in men
• most of the difference in total muscle performance lies in the extra
percentage of the male body that is muscle
• Endocrine
• Testosterone in Men
• a powerful anabolic effect in causing greatly increased deposition of protein everywhere in
the body, but especially in the muscles.
• Estrogen in women
• increases the deposition of fat in the female, especially in the breasts, hips, and subcutaneous
tissue. At least partly for this reason, the average nonathletic female has about 27 percent
body fat composition, in contrast to the nonathletic male, who has about 15 percent
 Muscles in Exercise
Strength, Power, and Endurance of
Muscles
• Strength of a muscle
• is determined mainly by its size
• a maximal contractile force between 3 and 4 kg/cm2 of muscle cross-
sectional area.
• Example: quadriceps muscle with a cross-sectional area  150 cm2
• maximal contractile strength of 525 kilograms
• Holding strength of muscles
• Force needed to stretch out the muscle that is already contracted
• About 40 percent greater than the contractile strength
• Forceful stretching of a maximally contracted muscle is one of the surest ways
to create the highest degree of muscle soreness
Muscle Power
• Mechanical Work
• the amount of force applied by the muscle multiplied by the distance over which the
force is applied
• Muscle power
• measure of the total amount of work that the muscle performs in a unit period of
time
• measured in kilogram meters (kg-m) per minute
• determined not only by the strength of muscle contraction but also by its distance
of contraction and the number of times that it contracts each minute
• Example: Muscle power – 1kg-m/min
• lift 1 kilogram weight to a height of 1 meter in 1 min
• can move object laterally against a force of 1 kilogram for a distance of 1 meter in 1 minute
The maximal power achievable by all the muscles in the body of a highly trained athlete with all the
muscles working together

• clear that a person has the capability of extreme power surges for short periods, such as during a 100-
meter dash that is completed entirely within 10 seconds, whereas for long-term endurance events, the
power output of the muscles is only one-fourth as great as during the initial power surge.
Endurance
• Depends on the nutritive support for the muscle
• depends on the amount of glycogen that has been stored in the muscle
before the period of exercise
• Enhanced by a high-carbohydrate diet
• Measured by the time that they can sustain the race until complete
exhaustion
• Type of Diet Minutes
• High-carbohydrate diet 240
• Mixed diet 120
• High-fat diet 85
• The amounts glycogen stored based on the type of diet
• Type of Diet approximate amount of glycogen: g/kgMuscle
High-carbohydrate diet 40
Mixed diet 20
High-fat diet 6
Muscle Metabolic Systems in
Exercise
• Phosphocreatine-creatine system
• Glycogen–lactic acid system
• Aerobic system
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
• The source of energy used to cause muscle contraction
• two phosphate radicals are high-energy phosphate bonds

• these bonds store 7300 calories of energy per mole of ATP under
standard conditions
Phosphocreatine-Creatine System
• Phosphocreatine (also called creatine phosphate)
• chemical compound that has a high-energy phosphate
• decompose to creatine and phosphate ions,
• releases 10,300 calories per mole
• muscle cells have two to four times as much phosphocreatine as ATP.
• occurs within a small fraction of a second
• all the energy stored in muscle phosphocreatine is almost instantaneously available for muscle
contraction
• Phosphagen energy system
• Combined amounts of cell ATP and cell phosphocreatine
• provide maximal muscle power for 8 to 10 seconds
• energy from the phosphagen system is used for maximal short bursts of muscle
power.
Glycogen–Lactic Acid System
• Glycogen in muscle  split into glucose form
ATP for energy
• Anaerobic metabolism
• Glycolysis occurs without the use of oxygen
• Generate ATP 2.5 times as rapidly as the
oxidative mechanism of mitochondria
• About one-half as rapid as the phosphagen
system.
• Under optimal conditions, the glycogen–lactic
acid system can provide 1.3 to 1.6 minutes of
maximal muscle activity but with reduced
muscle power
Aerobic System.
• the oxidation of foodstuffs in the mitochondria to provide energy
• maximal rates of power generation of the 3 metabolic system

• comparing the 3 metabolic system for endurance

What Types of Sports Use Which Energy
Systems?
What Types of Sports Use Which Energy
Systems?
What Types of Sports Use Which Energy
Systems?
What Types of Sports Use Which Energy
Systems?
Recovery of the Muscle Metabolic Systems
After Exercise
• energy from phosphocreatine can be used to reconstitute ATP
• energy from the glycogen–lactic acid system can be used to
reconstitute both phosphocreatine and ATP
• energy from the oxidative metabolism of the aerobic system can then
be used to reconstitute all the other systems—the ATP,
phosphocreatine, and glycogen–lactic acid systems
Removal of the excess lactic acid
• lactic acid causes extreme fatigue
• removal of lactic acid is achieved in two ways
• (1) A small portion of it is converted back into pyruvic acid and then
metabolized oxidatively by the body tissues
• (2) the remaining lactic acid is reconverted into glucose in the liver used to
replenish the glycogen stores of the muscles.
Recovery of the Aerobic System
After Exercise
• Heavy exercise aerobic energy capability is depleted
• Due to:
• Oxygen debt
• depletion of the glycogen stores of the muscles
Stored Oxygen in the Body
• 2 liters of stored oxygen that can be used for aerobic metabolism
even without breathing any new oxygen
• Consists of the following:
• 0.5 liter in the air of the lungs
• 0.25 liter dissolved in the body fluids
• 1 liter combined with the hemoglobin of the blood
• 0.3 liter stored in the muscle fibers, combined mainly with myoglobin
OXYGEN DEBT
• In heavy exercise, almost all this stored
oxygen is used within a minute or so for
aerobic metabolism
• Then, after the exercise is over, this stored
oxygen must be replenished
• by breathing extra amounts of oxygen
over and above the normal requirements.
• 9 liters more oxygen must be consumed to
reconstitute both the phosphagen system
and the lactic acid system.
Recovery of Muscle Glycogen
• high-carbohydrate diet, full
recovery occurs in about 2 Implications:
days
• It is important for athletes to
consume a high-
carbohydrate diet before a
• no food at all show very little grueling athletic event
recovery even after as long as
5 days. • Athletes should not
participate in exhaustive
exercise during the 48 hours
preceding the event.
Nutrients Used During Muscle
Activity
• most of the energy is derived from carbohydrates during the first few seconds or minutes of the exercise

• Glucose used for energy comes from

• Muscle Glycogen
• Liver Glycogen
• they are the energy nutrients of choice for
intense muscle activity.

at the time of exhaustion, as much as 60 to 85

percent of the energy is derived from fats rather
than carbohydrates

For a long-term endurance event, fat supplies more

than 50 percent of the required energy after about
the first 3 to 4 hours.
Effect of Athletic Training on Muscles
and Muscle Performance
Importance of Maximal Resistance
Training
• Muscles that function under no load, even if they are exercised for
hours on end, increase little in strength
• Muscles that contract at more than 50 percent maximal force of
contraction will develop strength rapidly even if the contractions are
performed only a few times each day
• Six nearly maximal muscle contractions performed in three sets 3 days
a week give an approximately optimal increase in muscle strength
without producing chronic muscle fatigue.
muscle strength increases about 30
percent during the first 6 to 8 weeks
Muscle Hypertrophy
• Average size of a person’s muscles is determined to a great extent
• by heredity
• the level of testosterone secretion
• With training
• Additional 30-60% muscle hypertrophy
• from an increased diameter of the muscle fibers
• Changes that occur inside the hypertrophied muscle fibers
• increased numbers of myofibrils
• increase in mitochondrial enzymes – up to 120%
• increase in the components of the phosphagen metabolic system - 60 to 80 %
• increase in stored glycogen – 50%
• increase in stored triglyceride - 75 to 100%
Fast-Twitch and Slow-Twitch Muscle
Fibers
Basic differences between the fast-
twitch and the slow-twitch fibers
• Fast witch fibers 2x as large in diameter compared with slow-twitch
fibers
• The enzymes that promote rapid release of energy from the
phosphagen and glycogen–lactic acid energy systems are two to three
times as active in fast-twitch fibers as in slow-twitch fibers
• maximal power that can be achieved for very short periods by fast-twitch
fibers about twice as great as that of slow-twitch fibers.
Basic differences between the fast-
twitch and the slow-twitch fibers
• Slow-twitch fibers are mainly organized for endurance, especially for
the generation of aerobic energy
• More mitochondria
• More myoglobin
• Enzymes of the aerobic metabolic system are considerably more active
• The number of capillaries is greater in the vicinity of slow-twitch fibers
than in the vicinity of fast-twitch fibers
• Fast-twitch fibers can deliver extreme amounts of power
• Slow-twitch fibers provide endurance
Hereditary Differences Among
Athletes for Fast Twitch Versus Slow-
Twitch Muscle Fiber
• relative proportions of fast-twitch and slow-twitch fibers seem to be
determined almost entirely by genetic inheritance
Respiration in Exercise
Oxygen Consumption
• Linear relation.
• Both oxygen consumption and total
pulmonary ventilation increase
about 20-fold between the resting
state and maximal intensity of
exercise in the well-trained athlete
 Limits of Pulmonary Ventilation

• maximal breathing capacity is about 50 percent greater than the

actual pulmonary ventilation during maximal exercise
• extra ventilation that can be called on in such conditions
• (1) exercise at high altitudes
• (2) exercise under very hot conditions
• (3) abnormalities in the respiratory system
• the respiratory system is not normally the most limiting factor in the
delivery of oxygen to the muscles during maximal muscle aerobic
metabolism
Effect of Training on V O2max.
• Rate of oxygen usage under maximal aerobic metabolism
• little effect on the increase in V O2max
• frequency of training
• Level of athletic training
Oxygen-Diffusing Capacity of
Athletes.
• is a measure of the rate at which oxygen can diffuse from the
pulmonary alveoli into the blood.
• There is a severalfold increase in diffusing capacity between the
resting state and the state of maximal exercise.
• Athletes who require greater amounts of oxygen per minute have
higher diffusing capacities.
Cardiovascular System in Exercise
• Muscle Blood Flow
• Increases markedly during exercise
• muscle blood flow can increase a maximum of about 25-fold during the most strenuous
exercise
• Functions to deliver the required oxygen and other nutrients to the exercising
muscles
• Factors that are responsible for the increase in blood flow to the muscle
during exercise
• Increased muscle metabolism which results intramuscular vasodilation  increased
blood flow
• Moderate increase in arterial blood pressure
• forces more blood through the blood vessels
• stretches the walls of the arterioles and further reduces the vascular resistance.
Cardiovascular System in Exercise
• Work Output, Oxygen Consumption, and Cardiac Output During
Exercise.
• Increase muscle work output
• Exercise causes muscle to contract  increasing work output
• Increases oxygen consumption
• Increase muscle activity during exercise  consume oxygen thus increasing the Oxygen
consumption of the muscles
• Increase in Cardiac output
• Because exercise increases oxygen consumption  the response of the body to
increased blood to the exercising muscle  this is achieved by vasodilation  increased
blood flow will also increased venous return  Increased in cardiac output
• the normal untrained person can increase cardiac output a little over fourfold
• the well-trained athlete can increase output about sixfold
Cardiovascular System in Exercise
• Effect of Training on Heart Hypertrophy and on Cardiac Output.
• During athletic training the skeletal muscles hypertrophy as well as the
cardiac muscles  Hypertrophy of the Heart
• occur almost entirely in the endurance types, not in the sprint type of athletic training
• Effect of the hypertrophy of the heart
• Increases the pumping activity of the heart  increased in stroke volume
• the heart-pumping effectiveness of each heartbeat is 40 to 50 percent greater in the highly
trained athlete
• During Rest the cardiac output is almost exactly the same as that in a normal person.
• This normal cardiac output is achieved by a large stroke volume at a reduced heart rate
• IN TRAINED ATHLETE the following are seen:
• Cardiac Hypertrophy
• Decreased Heart Rate
Body Heat in Exercise
• Almost all the energy released by the body’s metabolism of nutrients is
eventually converted into body heat
• Almost all the energy that does go into creating muscle work still becomes
body heat
• Therefore
• Increase oxygen consumption by the body during endurance athletic training can
increase as much as 20-fold  the amount of heat liberated in the body is almost
exactly proportional to the oxygen consumption  thus tremendous amounts of heat
are injected into the internal body tissues when performing endurance athletic event
• This makes the athlete prone to HEAT STROKE during training
• During endurance athletics
• Under normal environmental conditions, the body temperature often rises from its normal level 37°C to
40°C
• Very hot and humid conditions or excess clothing, the body temperature can easily rise to 41°C to 42°C
Heatstroke
• HEAT STROKE CAN OCCUR when body temperature is at 41°C to 42°C
• High temperature destructive to tissue cells, especially the brain cells
• Person suffering from heatstroke will have multiple symptoms
• Extreme weakness, exhaustion, headache, dizziness, nausea, profuse sweating,
confusion, staggering gait, collapse, and unconsciousness.
• If un treated this can be lethal because even when a person has stopped exercising, the
temperature does not easily decrease by itself.
• Treatment of heatstroke
• Reduce the body temperature as rapidly as possible
• The most practical way to reduce the body temperature is to:
• Remove all clothing
• Maintain a spray of cool water on all surfaces of the body or continually sponge the body
• Blow air over the body with a fan.
Body Fluids and Salt in Exercise
• As much as a 5- to 10-pound weight loss has been recorded in
athletes in a period of 1 hour during endurance athletic events under
hot and humid conditions
• this weight loss results from loss of sweat
• Effect of weight loss:
• 3 percent can significantly diminish a person’s performance
• 5 to 10 percent rapid decrease can lead to muscle cramps, nausea
• it is essential to replace fluid as it is lost during exercise
• Sweat contains a large amount of sodium chloride  thus salt tablet is
recommended when exercising on hot humid days
Acclimatization
• Physiological and behavioral adjustments that an person
undergoes in response to prolonged exposure to a new
environment
• Sweat gland acclimatization
• occurs when progressive increase in athletic exposure over a period of 1 to 2 weeks to
hot humid environment
• Manifestation
• Sweat gland produces less sweat
• Less sodium chloride is lost in sweat
• Mechanism: Increased aldosterone secretion by the adrenal cortex
• Aldosterone effect on the sweat glands
• increasing reabsorption of sodium chloride from the sweat thus decreasing the salt content pf the sweat.

• Once the athlete is acclimatized, only rarely do salt supplements need to be

considered during athletic events.
Electrolytes that are lost in the body during Exercise

• Sodium
• Increased sweating  Increased Na loss
• Potassium
• Results from increased secretion of aldosterone during heat acclimatization 
increases the loss of potassium in the urine & as well as in the sweat
Exercise-associated hyponatremia
(low plasma sodium concentration)
• occur after sustained physical exertion
• severe hyponatremia can cause tissue edema, especially in the brain,
which can be lethal
• In life-threatening hyponatremia after heavy exercise
• Main cause is often due to ingestion of hypotonic fluid (water or sports
drinks that usually have a sodium concentration of less than 18 mmol/L)

• The best fluid replacement is NOT water but Fluid which contains
Sodium, Potassium and Glucose  Fruit Juices
Drugs and Athlete
• Caffeine
• Believed to increase athletic performance
• In one experiment performed by a marathon runner, running time for the
marathon was improved by 7% through judicious use of caffeine in amounts
similar to those found in one to three cups of coffee. Yet experiments by
other investigators have failed to confirm any advantage, thus leaving this
issue in doubt.
Drugs and Athlete
• Male sex hormones (androgens) or other anabolic steroids
• Increase muscle strength  increase athletic performance under
some conditions, especially in women and even in men.
• Increases the risk of cardiovascular disease  promote heart
attacks and strokes
• Often cause hypertension
• Decreased high-density blood lipoproteins
• Increased low-density lipoproteins
Drugs and Athlete
• Anabolic Steroids – Effect in men
• Can lead to decreased testicular function
• both decreased formation of sperm and decreased secretion of the
person’s own natural testosterone
• residual effects sometimes lasting at least for many months and perhaps
indefinitely
• Effect in woman, even more significant effects such as facial hair, a bass voice,
ruddy skin, and cessation of menses can occur because she is not normally
adapted to the male sex hormone.
Drugs and Athlete
• Amphetamines and cocaine
• Reputed to increase athletic performance
• Overuse of these drugs can lead to deterioration of performance
• Experiments have failed to prove the value of these drugs except as a
psychic stimulant.
• Athletes have been known to die during athletic events because of interaction
between such drugs and the norepinephrine and epinephrine released by the
sympathetic nervous system during exercise.
• One of the possible causes of death under these conditions is overexcitability
of the heart, leading to ventricular fibrillation, which is lethal within seconds.
Body Fitness Prolongs Life
• Prolongs life
• Between the ages of 50 and 70 years -- studies have shown mortality to be
three times less in the most fit people than in the least fit people
• How does fitness prolong life?
• (1) maintenance of moderately lower blood pressure
• (2) reduced blood cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein along with increased high-
density lipoprotein.
• An athletically fit person has more bodily reserves to call on when he
or she does become sick.
• Reduce the risk for several chronic metabolic disorders associated
with obesity, such as insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes
• Reduces the risk for several types of cancers, including breast,
prostate, and colon cancer.