Life-Span Human

Development, 10e
Chapter 2: Genes,
Environment, and Development

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 Icebreaker
1. The class will be broken up into pairs of students.
2. Each pair of students will share what they believe they inherited from
their parents and what they acquired through environmental influences
or experiences.
3. Student pairs will then share their thoughts with the class.

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 Learning Objectives (1 of 5)
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• 2.1 Summarize the basic argument of Darwin’s theory of evolution and
the significance of the theory for the study of development.
• 2.2 Describe the contributions of ethology and modern evolutionary
psychology, including work on life history strategies, to our
understanding of genes, development, and behavior.
• 2.3 Compare and contrast biological evolution and cultural evolution.

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 Learning Objectives (2 of 5)
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• 2.4 Describe the basics of the genetic code and what we inherit from our
parents.
• 2.5 Distinguish and give examples of the major mechanisms of
inheritance, mutations, copy number variations (CNVs), and
chromosome abnormalities.
• 2.6 Summarize what we know about the nature, inheritance, diagnosis,
and treatment of selected genetic diseases such as sickle-cell disease,
Huntington’s disease, and phenylketonuria (PKU) and the major
techniques of prenatal diagnosis of such diseases and disorders.
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 Learning Objectives (3 of 5)
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• 2.7 Define the main goal of behavioral genetics, the meaning of
heritability, and the research methods used to study it.
• 2.8 Distinguish among the effects of genes, shared environmental
influences, and nonshared environmental influences, and explain how a
study of identical and fraternal twin pairs raised together versus raised
apart can shed light on the importance of each of these three types of
influence.
• 2.9 Explain what molecular genetics studies tell us that behavioral
genetics studies cannot.
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 Learning Objectives (4 of 5)
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• 2.10 Summarize the main messages of behavioral genetics research on
physical traits, intelligence, and temperament and personality regarding
the roles of genes, shared environment, and nonshared environment.
• 2.11 Compare the average heritabilities of physical traits, intelligence,
personality, psychological disorders, and attitudes and interests.
• 2.12 Distinguish between gene–environment interaction and gene–
environment correlation.

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 Learning Objectives (5 of 5)
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• 2.13 Explain what epigenetic effects are and what they say about the
interplay between genes and environment.
• 2.14 Explain how genetic makeup can affect people’s environment and
experiences and how genetically informed studies can help determine
whether parenting and other environmental influences on development
really matter.
• 2.15 Explain why genetic research and behavioral genetic research are
controversial.

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2.1 Evolution and Human
Development

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 Discussion
How do you think evolution has impacted human development? Provide an
example in your response.

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 Evolution and Human Development

• Species heredity: • Darwin’s arguments:

− Genetic endowment that − There is genetic variation in a
members of a species have in species.
common, including genes that − Some genes aid adaptation
influence biological maturation
more than others.
and aging processes
− Natural selection: the idea
• Species heredity is one reason that nature “selects,” or allows
certain patterns of development to survive and reproduce,
and aging are universal. those members of a species
whose genes help them adapt
to their environment
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 Modern Evolutionary Perspective
• Ethology:
− Seeks to understand the evolved behavior of various species in their
natural environment
• Evolutionary psychology:
− Application of evolutionary theory to understanding human thinking and
behavior
• Most significant legacy of biological evolution:
− Powerful and flexible brain that allows humans to learn from their
experiences and adapt

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 Life History Strategies
• Slow life history strategy:
− Likely to be adopted when life is secure and predictable

• Fast life history strategy:

− Likely to be adopted in stressful environments in which life is harsh and
unpredictable
• Cultural evolution:
− The process through which we inherit from previous generations a
characteristically human environment and tried true ways of adapting to it
and then invent better ways of adapting and adjusting to changing
conditions and pass on what we learn to the next generation
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 2.2 Individual Heredity

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 The Genetic Code
• Conception—when an egg is
fertilized by a sperm
• Sperm cell and an ovum each
contribute 23 chromosomes to the
zygote (46 total):
− Sperm and ovum produced by
meiosis
• Chromosomes:
− Threadlike bodies in the nucleus of
each cell and are made up of genes

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 Meiosis and Mitosis
• Sperm and ova have only 23 chromosomes because they are produced
through meiosis.
• Mitosis:
− Cell divides to produce two identical cells, each containing the same 46
chromosomes.
− Zygotes become multiple cell organisms through mitosis.

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 Table 2.2 Mitosis and Meiosis Compared
Mitosis Meiosis in Males Meiosis in Females
Begins Conception Puberty Early in prenatal period when
unripened ova form
Continues Throughout life span Throughout Throughout reproductive years; an
adolescence and ovum ripens each month of the
adulthood menstrual cycle
Produces Two identical daughter Four sperm, each with One ovum and three nonfunctional
cells, each with 46 23 chromosomes polar bodies, each with 23
chromosomes like its chromosomes
parent
Accomplishments Growth of human from Formation of male Formation of female reproductive
fertilized egg, renewal reproductive cells cells
of the body’s cells

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 Decoding the Genome
• Human Genome Project:
− Researchers mapped sequence of chemical units that make up the strands
of DNA in a full set of 46 human chromosomes.
− Only about 2% of the human genome consists of what was defined as
genes.
− Other 98% play critical roles in regulating activity of the protein-producing
genes.

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 Genetic Uniqueness and Relatedness

• Crossing over • Identical twins:

− Pairs of chromosomes line up, − One fertilized ovum divides to
and before separating, they form two or more genetically
cross each other and parts are identical individuals.
exchanged.
• Fraternal twins:
− Unlikely that there will be another
human exactly like you − Two ova are released at
genetically approximately the same time
and each is fertilized by a
 Exception identical twins different sperm.

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 Determination of Sex
• Chromosomes of the 23rd pair are the sex chromosomes:
− Male—one X chromosome and one Y chromosome
− Female—two X chromosomes

• Father determines child’s sex.

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 From Genotype to Phenotype
• Genotype:
− Genetic makeup a person inherits

• Phenotype:
− The characteristic or trait the person eventually has

• Gene expression:
− Activation of particular genes in particular cells of the body at particular
times

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 Mechanisms of Inheritance (1 of 2)
• Single gene-pair inheritance:
− Thousands of human characteristics are influenced by only one pair of
genes.
 One from the mother; one from the father
• Dominant gene:
− A gene that will be expressed when paired with a recessive gene
• Recessive gene:
− A weaker gene that can be dominated

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 Mechanisms of Inheritance (2 of 2)
• Sex-linked characteristics:
− Influenced by single genes located on the sex chromosomes
− Most of these attributes are associated with genes located on X
chromosomes.
− Hemophilia is a deficiency in the blood’s ability to clot.

• Polygenic inheritance:
− Influenced by multiple pairs of genes, interacting with multiple
environmental factors
− Examples: height, weight, intelligence

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Table 2.3 Examples of Dominant and
Recessive Traits
Dominant Trait Recessive Trait
Brown eyes Gray green, hazel, or blue eyes
Dark hair Blond hair
Nonred hair Red hair
Curly hair Straight hair
Normal vision Nearsightedness
Farsightedness Normal vision
Broad lips Thin lips
Double jointed Normal joints
Pigmented skin Albinism
Type A blood Type O blood
Type B blood Type O blood

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 Mutations and Copy Number Variations (1 of 2)
• Mutations:
− A change in the structure or arrangement of one or more genes that
produces a new phenotype
− Odds that mutations will occur are increased by environmental hazards
− Most are just spontaneous errors during cell division.
− Fathers contribute about four times the number of new mutations as
mothers.

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 Mutations and Copy Number Variations (2 of 2)
• Copy Number Variations (CNVs):
− Instances in which part of the genome is either deleted or duplicated
− More extensive than a mutation
− Can extend over a large stretch of DNA
− Can either be inherited or arise spontaneously
− Significantly increase the risks of a number of polygenic disorders involving
the nervous system

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 Chromosome Abnormalities
• Chromosomal abnormalities: • Down syndrome (trisomy 21): It is
associated with three 21st
− Result when a child receives too
chromosomes.
many, too few, or abnormal
chromosomes • Turner syndrome: Female is born
− Most caused by errors in with a single X chromosome.
chromosome division during • Klinefelter syndrome: Male born
meiosis with one or more extra X
− Main cause of pregnancy loss chromosomes.
• Fragile X syndrome: One arm of X
chromosome is barely connected.

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 Genetic Diseases and Their Diagnosis
• Genetic counseling:
− Provides information about nature, likelihood, effects, and treatment of
genetically based diseases and disorders
• Carriers:
− Do not have the disease but can transmit the gene for it to their children

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 Prenatal Diagnosis
• Prenatal detection of abnormalities:
− Ultrasound
− Amniocentesis
− Chorionic villus sampling
− Maternal blood sampling
− Preimplantation genetic diagnosis

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 Knowledge Check 1
Both Mario and Shawn have brown eyes. This is an example of
A. genotype.
B. phenotype.
C. crossing over.
D. mitosis.

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 Knowledge Check 1: Answer
• Both Mario and Shawn have brown eyes. This is an example of
• Answer: B. phenotype.
• Phenotype is the characteristic or trait the person eventually has.

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2.3 Studying Genetic and
Environmental Influences

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 Discussion
What do you think is more influential in human development—genetics or
environmental influences? Why?

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 Studying Genetic and Environmental Influences
• Behavioral genetics:
− Scientific study of the extent to which genetic and environmental
differences among people are responsible for differences
• Heritability:
− Proportion of all the variability in the trait within a large sample of people
that can be linked to genetic differences among those individuals

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 Twin, Adoption, and Family Studies (1 of 3)
• Twin studies:
− Determine whether identical twins reared together are more similar to each
other than fraternal twins reared together.
− Limitations
 Do findings generalize to singleton children?
 Identical twins could be more psychologically similar because they shared
prenatal environment.
 Identical twins are often treated more similarly, which could explain their
psychological similarity.

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 Twin, Adoption, and Family Studies (2 of 3)
• Adoption studies:
− Are children adopted early in life psychologically similar to their biological
parents or their adoptive parents?
− Limitations
 Genes and the prenatal environment the biological mother provided could
influence development.
 May underestimate the effects of the full range of environments children can
experience

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 Twin, Adoption, and Family Studies (3 of 3)
• Family studies:
− Include pairs of siblings who have a variety of different degrees of genetic
similarity.
− Measure qualities of family members’ experiences to determine similarities
and differences in siblings’ environments.

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 Estimating Influences (1 of 2)
• Concordance rates:
− Percentage of pairs of people studied in which if one member of a pair
displays the trait, the other does too
− If concordance rates are higher for more genetically related, trait is
heritable.

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 Estimating Influences (2 of 2)
• Contributions of three factors to individual differences:
− Genes
− Shared environmental experiences
 Common experiences that work to make them similar
− Nonshared environmental experiences
 Experiences unique to the individual, not shared by others in family

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Correlations from a Twin Study of the Heritability
of Angry Emotionality
Raised Apart
Identical twin pairs 0.37 0.33
Fraternal twin pairs 0.17 0.09

Pointing to specific correlations in this table, can you find evidence that genes, shared
environment, and nonshared environment all contribute to individual differences in
angry emotionality?

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 Molecular Genetics
• Molecular genetics:
− Analysis of particular genes and their effects
− Involves identification of specific variants of genes that influence particular
traits
− Can help identify the multiple genes that contribute to polygenic traits

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2.4 The Heritability of Different
Traits

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 Intellectual Abilities
• Heritability of IQ scores is about 0.50:
− Genetic differences account for about 50% of the variation in IQ.
− Increases with age

• Shared environmental influences become less significant with age:

− Account for 30% of the variation in IQ in childhood but less in adulthood

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The Proportions of Variance in Child IQ Scores

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 Temperament and Personality
• Temperament:
− Tendencies to respond in predictable ways, such as sociability and
emotional reactivity, that serve as the building blocks of later personality
• Findings indicate that living in the same home does not make children
more similar in personality.

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 Knowledge Check 2
• Joel is an introvert and is rather shy. This is his
A. genotype.
B. intelligence.
C. heritability.
D. temperament.

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 Knowledge Check 2: Answer
• Joel is an introvert and is rather shy. This is his
• Answer: D. temperament.
• Temperament is defined as tendencies to respond in predictable
ways, such as sociability and emotional reactivity.

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2.5 Gene–Environment Interplay

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 Gene–Environment Interactions
• Gene–environment interaction:
− The effects of genes depend on what kind of environment we experience.
− How we respond to the environment depends on what genes we have.

• Often is a combination of high-risk genes and a high-risk environment to

trigger psychological problems

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 Explanations
• Diathesis–stress model:
− Psychological disorder results from an interaction of a person’s
predisposition or vulnerability to problems and the experience of stressful
events.
• Differential susceptibility hypothesis:
− Some people’s genes make them more reactive than other people to
environmental influences, whether good or bad ones.

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 Gene–Environment Correlations
• Gene–environment correlations:
− Ways that a person’s genes and his or her environment are systematically
interrelated
• Three types of gene–environment correlations:
− Passive
− Evocative
− Active

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 Implications for Gene–Environment Correlations
• Behavioral geneticists are discovering that measures of environment are
heritable.
• Genes influence how parents, peers, and others treat children.
• Environmental influences then contribute to the individual’s
development.

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 Epigenetic Effects on Gene Expression
• Epigenetic effects:
− Environmental factors affect whether or not particular genes in particular
cells are expressed.
− Might explain differences in identical twins

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 Table 2.7 Types of Gene-Environment
Interplay
Type Meaning Example Significance
Gene–environment People with different genes Stress triggers depression Nature and nurture combine. Diathesis
interaction are affected differently by only if a person has high- stress model of psychopathology.
environmental influences. risk genes.
Gene–environment People with different genes Children who have genes Nature affects nurture. Genetic
correlation experience different associated with sociability predispositions influence experiences,
environments— have sociable parents, which often strengthen genetically
environments correlated with evoke sociable responses based tendencies. Measures of
their genes. from others, and actively environment are not purely
seek social interaction. environmental; they are genetically
Influenced.
Epigenetic effects Environment affects gene Early abuse/neglect results Nurture affects nature. Environmental
expression through chemical in an overly reactive stress influences alter the functioning of
codings on genes. response system and later genes; some epigenetic marks are
psychological disorders. passed on to offspring.

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 Controversies Surrounding Genetic Research
• Gene therapy:
− Involves substituting normal genes for the genes associated with a disease
or disorder
• Developmentalists question the idea of trying to separate the influences
of genes and environment on differences between individuals.

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 Self-Assessment
• Do you think evolution has impacted human development?
• What self-characteristics do you think you inherited from your parents?
• How are temperament and personality related?
• How do genetic and environmental influences interact to produce
development?

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 Summary (1 of 5)
Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned:
• Summarize the basic argument of Darwin’s theory of evolution and the
significance of the theory for the study of development.
• Describe the contributions of ethology and modern evolutionary
psychology, including work on life history strategies, to our
understanding of genes, development, and behavior.
• Compare and contrast biological evolution and cultural evolution.

©2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 56
 Summary (2 of 5)
Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned:
• Describe the basics of the genetic code and what we inherit from our
parents.
• Distinguish and give examples of the major mechanisms of inheritance,
mutations, copy number variations (CNVs), and chromosome
abnormalities.
• Summarize what we know about the nature, inheritance, diagnosis, and
treatment of selected genetic diseases such as sickle-cell disease,
Huntington’s disease, and phenylketonuria (PKU) and the major
techniques of prenatal diagnosis of such diseases and disorders.
©2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 57
 Summary (3 of 5)
Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned:
• Define the main goal of behavioral genetics, the meaning of heritability,
and the research methods used to study it.
• Distinguish among the effects of genes, shared environmental
influences, and nonshared environmental influences, and explain how a
study of identical and fraternal twin pairs raised together versus raised
apart can shed light on the importance of each of these three types of
influence.
• Explain what molecular genetics studies tell us that behavioral genetics
studies cannot.
©2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 58
 Summary (4 of 5)
Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned:
• Summarize the main messages of behavioral genetics research on
physical traits, intelligence, and temperament and personality regarding
the roles of genes, shared environment, and nonshared environment.
• Compare the average heritabilities of physical traits, intelligence,
personality, psychological disorders, and attitudes and interests.
• Distinguish between gene–environment interaction and gene–
environment correlation.

©2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 59
 Summary (5 of 5)
Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned:
• Explain what epigenetic effects are and what they say about the
interplay between genes and environment.
• Explain how genetic makeup can affect people’s environment and
experiences and how genetically informed studies can help determine
whether parenting and other environmental influences on development
really matter.
• Explain why genetic research and behavioral genetic research are
controversial.

©2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 60