Bule Hora University

College of Natural and Computational Sciences

Department of Biology

Remedial program of Biology

Target group – Pre-university natural sciences students

Instructor's Name Kiyar Jemal (M.Sc.)

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 Unit 1: The science of biology (4 hrs.)
Learning competencies
Define and explain science as a way of knowledge and looking at and thinking about natural
events.
Describe and explain the main steps scientific methods .
Demonstrate scientific methods by narrating Louis Pasteur and Alexander Fleming work.
Plan and conduct an experiment to investigate a particular observation.
 Write a report for a scientific experiment.
Name and describe the function of the main pieces of apparatus that are used by biologists the
world over.
Describe how these pieces of apparatus work.
Explain how, and under what circumstances, these pieces of apparatus would be used and
demonstrate the use of some of them.
Classify the apparatus as laboratory tools, field tools or both.
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Be aware of possible health and safety implications of using these tools.
1.1 The methods of science
What is the science of biology?
 The word biology is derived from two Greek words: bios –‘life’ and logos –‘study’

 Biology is the science of life and living organisms.

 An organism is a living being made from one cell (for example bacteria, unicellular algae) or
many cells (for example, animals, plants and most fungi).

What is science?
 The word science comes from the Latin word scientia, which means ‘knowledge’. But science
isn’t just about having knowledge: science is a unique system of acquiring knowledge based on
the scientific method.
 This science is sometimes called experimental science, because it depends very heavily on 3
What is science?
 This is different from applied science, in which scientific research is used to meet certain
human needs. However, it is often difficult to separate the two.
 Science is an ongoing effort to find new information and principles which can increase
human knowledge and understanding.
 In their research, scientists collect evidence that supports or disproves a particular suggested
explanation of a natural phenomenon.
 One important idea in science is that any suggested explanation of a phenomenon should be
capable of being proved wrong.
 If there is no way of proving it wrong, how can other people accept that it is correct? This is
what distinguishes science from religious beliefs.

KEY WORDS
Scientific method the process by which scientists approach their work
Experimental science the use of experiments to obtain information 4
 The Scientific methods
This is the process by which biologists and all other scientists approach their work.
The scientific method is a process of experimentation that is used to explore observations and
answer questions.
It is an empirical method of acquiring knowledge.
It is also the technique used in the construction and testing of a scientific hypothesis.

For centuries, people based their explanations of what they saw going on in the world around
them on observations, without testing their ideas to see if they were true.

One ancient belief was that simple living organisms could come into being by spontaneous
generation.
This idea suggests that non living objects can give rise to living organisms. But, this idea was
disproved in the current world. 5
 What are the main steps of the scientific method?
The scientific method consists of a number of stages. These are summarized in the flowchart.
So what is happening at each of these stages? What is the biologist doing and what do we mean
by hypothesis?

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Figure 1.1 The scientific method
 Steps in the scientific method commonly include:
1. Observation - Quantitative and qualitative measurements of the world.

2. Asking Question : Defining the problem (research question) you wish to explain.

3. Formulation of Hypothesis:
Hypothesis is a potential answer to the question, one that can somehow be tested.

hypothesis is not necessarily the right explanation.

Instead, it's a possible explanation that we can test to see if it is likely correct, or if we

need to make a new hypothesis.

A hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable in order to be valid.

4. Make predictions
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A prediction is an outcome we would expect to see if the hypothesis is correct.
5. Test the predictions

To test the hypothesis, we need to make an observation or perform an experiment associated
with the prediction

The results of a test may either support or contradict-oppose a hypothesis.

Results that support a hypothesis can't conclusively prove that it's correct, but they do mean
it's likely to be correct.

On the other hand, if results contradict a hypothesis, that hypothesis is probably not correct.

Unless there was a flaw in the test-a-possibility we should always consider-a contradictory
result means that we can discard the hypothesis and look for a new one.
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 How are hypotheses tested?

When possible, scientists test their hypotheses using controlled experiments.

A controlled experiment is a scientific test done under controlled conditions,

meaning that just one (or a few) factors are changed at a time, while all others are kept

constant.

In some cases, there is no good way to test a hypothesis using a controlled experiment (for
practical or ethical reasons).

In that case, a scientist may test a hypothesis by making predictions about patterns that should

be seen in nature if the hypothesis is correct.

Then, she or he can collect data to see if the pattern is actually there.
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 How are hypotheses tested?

What are the key ingredients of a controlled experiment? To illustrate, let us consider a simple
example.
Suppose I decide to grow bean sprouts in my kitchen, near the window. I put bean seeds in a
pot with soil, set them on the windowsill, and wait for them to sprout. However, after several
weeks, I have no sprouts. Why not? Well...it turns out I forgot to water the seeds.
So, I hypothesize that they did not sprout due to lack of water.
To test my hypothesis, I do a controlled experiment. In this experiment, I set up two identical
pots.
Both contain ten bean seeds planted in the same type of soil, and both are placed in the same
window. In fact, there is only one thing that I do differently to the two pots:
One pot of seeds gets watered every afternoon.
The other pot of seeds does not get any water at all.
After a week, nine out of ten seeds in the watered pot have sprouted, while none of the seeds in
the dry pot have sprouted.
It looks like the "seeds need water" hypothesis is probably correct! 10
 How are hypotheses tested?

Figure 1.2. a simple example illustrates the parts of a controlled experiment

Panel 1: Two identical pots are prepared. 10 bean seeds are added to each pot. The
pots are placed near the window.

Panel 2: One pot (experimental group) is watered. The other pot (control group) is
not watered. The independent variable is the amount of water given.

Panel 3: In the experimental (watered) pot, 9/10 seed sprout. In the control
(unwatered) pot, 0/10 seeds sprout. The fraction of seeds that sprout is the
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dependent variable.
 Control and experimental groups
There are two groups in the experiment, and they are identical except that one receives a

treatment (example water in figure 1.2) while the other does not.
The group that receives the treatment in an experiment (here, the watered pot) is called the

experimental group,
while the group that does not receive the treatment (here, the dry pot) is called the control

group.
The control group provides a baseline that lets us see if the treatment has an effect.

A control group acts as a ‘standard’ for comparison. It is used to ‘isolate’ the factor we are

investigating and show that changes are due to this factor.

Experimental group the group in an experiment which is being experimented on in order to
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compare with the control group 12
 What do we mean by cause and effect?
Scientific experiments try to establish cause and effect.
This means that they try to prove that a change in one factor brings about a change in another
factor.
The factor that is different between the control and experimental groups (in figure 1.2, the
amount of water) is known as the independent variable (IV).
This variable is independent because it does not depend on what happens in the experiment.
Instead, it is something that the experimenter applies or chooses him/herself.
In contrast, the dependent variable (DV) in an experiment is the response that is measured to
see if the treatment had an effect. In figure 1.2, the fraction of bean seeds that sprouted is the
dependent variables (DV)
The dependent variable (fraction of seeds sprouting) depends on the independent variable (the
amount of water), and not vice versa.
Experiments can only establish cause and effect if changes in the IV are shown to cause
changes in the DV
We must take all the steps we can to ensure that the experiment is a fair test. 13
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 What do we mean by cause and effect?
We must make sure that any other factors which could affect the results are the same for the
different conditions we set up.
We must keep constant anything other than the IV that might influence the results. These are
controlled variables. In the figure 1.2. simple illustration experiment, the controlled variables
were:
 Temperature
Lighting conditions
Number of seeds sown per pots
Occasionally, there is a variable that might influence the results that you can’t control. Such a
variable is a confounding variable.
This is because it ‘confounds’ the interpretation of the results. You couldn’t be certain that it
was the IV producing the changes in the DV because of the presence of the confounding
variable.
 For example, if you measure the carbon dioxide uptake by wheat plants as the light intensity
changes over the day, you cannot control the effect of change in temperature. It could be a
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confounding variable. 14
 Controlled experiment case study: CO2 ​and coral bleaching

As a more realistic example of a controlled experiment, let us examine a recent study on coral
bleaching.
Corals normally have tiny photosynthetic organisms living inside of them, and bleaching
happens when they leave the color, typically due to environmental stress.
The photo below shows a bleached coral in front and a healthy coral in back.

Figure 1.3. bleaching coral reef

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 Controlled experiment case study: CO2 ​and coral bleaching
A lot of research on the cause of bleaching has focused on water temperature.

However, a team of Australian researchers hypothesized that other factors might be important
too.

Specifically, they tested the hypothesis that high CO2 levels, which make ocean waters more

acidic, might also promote bleaching.

What kind of experiment would you do to test this hypothesis?

Think about:

What your control and experimental groups would be

What your independent and dependent variables would be 16
 Controlled experiment case study: CO2 ​and coral bleaching
Experimental setup
The Australian team collected many fragments of a certain coral species (Acropora intermedia)
from the Great Barrier Reef.
Then, they split the fragments into three groups, putting each group in water with a different
pH (acidity level).
After eight weeks, the researchers checked each fragment to see how much it had bleached.

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Figure 1.4. Experimental setup to test effects of water acidity on coral bleaching
 Non-experimental hypothesis tests
Some types of hypotheses cannot be tested in controlled experiments for ethical or practical
reasons.

For example, a hypothesis about viral infection can't be tested by dividing healthy people into two
groups and infecting one group.

 infecting healthy people would not be safe or ethical.

Similarly, an ecologist studying the effects of rainfall can't make it rain in one part of a continent,
while keeping another part dry as a control.

In situations like these, biologists may use non-experimental forms of hypothesis testing.
 In a non-experimental hypothesis test, a researcher predicts observations or patterns that should be
seen in nature if the hypothesis is correct.
She or he then collects and analyzes data, seeing whether the patterns are actually present. 18
 Non-experimental hypothesis tests
Case study: Coral bleaching and temperature

A good example of hypothesis testing based on observation comes from early studies of coral
bleaching.

As mentioned above, bleaching is when corals lose the photosynthetic pigment that live inside
of them, which makes them turn white.

 Researchers suspected that high water temperature might cause bleaching, and they tested
this hypothesis experimentally on a small scale (using isolated coral fragments in tanks)

What ecologists most wanted to know, however, was whether water temperature was causing
bleaching for lots of different coral species in their natural setting.
This broader question could not be answered experimentally, as it wouldn't be ethical, even
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possible to artificially change the water temperature surrounding entire coral reefs.
 Non-experimental hypothesis tests
Case study: Coral bleaching and temperature
Instead, to test the hypothesis that natural bleaching events were caused by increases in water
temperature, a team of researchers develop a computer program to predict bleaching events
based on real-time water temperature data.

This program would generally predict bleaching for a particular reef when the water temperature
in the reef's area exceeded its average monthly maximum by 1 ∘C or more .

The computer program was able to predict many bleaching events weeks or even months
before they were reported, including a large bleaching event in the Great Barrier Reef in 1998.

The fact that a temperature-based model could predict bleaching events supported the
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hypothesis that high water temperature causes bleaching in naturally occurring coral reefs.
 How did the scientific method disprove the idea of spontaneous generation?

What about the belief that rotting meat produces flies? How could you disprove that by using
the scientific method? Well, in 1668 an Italian biologist, Francesco Redi, did just that.

Many scientists consider this to be the first true ‘experiment’.

He used wide-mouth jars containing meat. Some jars were left open to the air. Others were
covered with a piece of gauze.

After several days, maggots and then flies could be seen in the open jars, but none appeared in
the closed jars.

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Figure 1.5. Francesco Redi’s 1668 experiment 21
 How did the scientific method disprove the idea of spontaneous generation?
Redi hypothesized that only flies could produce more flies and predicted that, in his experiment,
flies would be found in the open jars, but not in the covered jars.
He maintained all the jars under the same conditions and so he controlled many variables.
 By choosing to cover some jars with gauze rather than an impermeable seal, he allowed air to
enter all the jars – again he controlled a variable that could have affected the outcome of the
experiment.
His results matched his prediction and when other people tried the experiment, they too got the
same results.
Redi was able to conclude that flies cannot be produced from rotting meat.
He also went on to say that it was unlikely that any form of spontaneous generation was
possible
 Most people accepted this for larger organisms, but, at round about this time, the microscope
had been invented and the whole world of microbiology was opened up.
Many people still believed that micro-organisms could arise by spontaneous generation. It took
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the work of Louis Pasteur to disprove this. 22
 How did the scientific method disprove the idea of spontaneous generation?
In 1859, Pasteur carried out experiments to show that the micro-organisms that caused wine
and broth to go cloudy came from the air and were not made from the broth itself.
He used special ‘swan-necked flasks’ like that shown in Figure 1.6.

 Pasteur boiled broths in swan-necked flasks to kill any microorganisms that might be in them.

The boiling forced steam and air out of the flasks.

When the boiling stopped and the broth cooled, air was sucked back into the flasks.

1. Some flask contained a filter to prevent all solid particles from getting into the growth
medium from the air.

2. Others had no filter but, in these, the dust (and the microorganisms) in the air settled in the
lowest part of the neck of the flask.
All the flasks were kept under the same conditions in Pasteur’s laboratory. 23
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 How did the scientific method disprove the idea of spontaneous generation?

Figure 1.6 A swan-necked flask like the ones used by Louis Pasteur
The broths in the second two groups of flasks turned cloudy (due to the presence of micro-
organisms) within days. The broths in the first group remained clear.
After this, people were forced to admit that spontaneous generation, even of micro-organisms,
could not happen.

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 Accuracy, reliability and validity in scientific experiments
They are really quite separate notions and all are important to how well an experiment is
received by other scientists.
Accuracy
Accuracy refers to how precisely you measure or count something.
The level of accuracy you choose must reflect the magnitude of what you are measuring.

Reliability
A measure of how dependable and consistent the results of an experiment are
If we were to repeat the investigation, would we get more or less the same results?
There are several things we can do to increase the reliability of our experiments.

1. We can standardize all our procedures, so that we always do exactly the same thing.
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
 Accuracy, reliability and validity in scientific experiments
2. We can repeat it many times ourselves.

This allows us to see, hopefully, a general pattern.

 It also allows us to:

spot any anomalous results and if it is justified, to exclude these calculate an average
result, which is likely to be more representative than any individual result

3. We can try not to use personal judgement.

Validity

This is about whether or not our experiment measures what it says it is measuring.
For our experiment to be valid, we must be certain that our results were only due to the changes in
the independent variable and nothing else.
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So if we not controlled all the other variables, our experiment would not have been valid.
 How do we write reports on scientific experiments?
When biologists write a report on an investigation they have just done, they write it with a view
to having it published in a scientific journal, such as nature or science.
Components of scientific report writing includes:
1. A title, which states clearly what is being investigated
2. A hypothesis, stated clearly in terms of how the independent variable is expected to influence
the dependent variable
3. A clear description of the experimental procedure;
4. The results obtained; it is often helpful to summarise these (where appropriate) in graphs,
charts and tables
5. The conclusions that have been drawn from the results
6. An evaluation of the procedure; this is an honest assessment of the limitations of the
procedure that has been used, pointing out any unavoidable limitations and inaccuracies that
arose
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7. An acknowledgement of the use of any other person’s work.
 1.2 The tools of a biologist
What apparatus do biologists use?
The main items of biologist apparatus are:
Laboratory equipment and
Field equipment
What do biologists use in the laboratory?
 This is still a large list. But there are some basic tools. These include:

•Microscopes • Balances

• Dissecting equipment • Measuring cylinders

• Petri dishes

• Pipettes and syringes

• Centrifuges 28
 What do biologists use in the laboratory?
Microscopes are one of the most vital tools in a biology laboratory. There are two main types:
Light microscopes that use beams of light to produce magnified images
Electron microscopes that use beams of electrons to produce magnified images

Figure 1.7 A. a light microscope; B an electron microscope 29

 What do biologists use in the laboratory?
Measuring cylinders, pipettes, burette and syringes
All these are used for measuring volumes, usually of liquids, but in some investigations they
can be used to measure the volume of a gas.
To measure 3.5 cm3 accurately, the pipette would be best. To measure 200 cm3 you would use
the measuring cylinder.

Figure 1.8 Different measuring apparatus 30

 What do biologists use in the laboratory?
Balances are used for measuring mass.
They come in a range of sizes and properties.
Some can measure the mass of very heavy objects, but not with any great degree of precision.
Others measure smaller masses to the nearest 0.0001 g (one ten-thousandth of a gram).

Figure 1.9 A This balance is accurate to 0.01 g B This balance is accurate to 0.0001 g 31
 What do biologists use in the laboratory?
Dissecting Kit used to cut apart or separate tissue for anatomical study

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 What do biologists use in the laboratory?
Petri dishes are round dishes made from glass or plastic.
They are used in many different ways, but usually to culture some organisms.

Figure 1.13 Bacteria Figure 1.15 Bacteria Figure 1.16 ‘Starch-

growing on agar in a Petri being agar’ with four
dish. The grid allows Figure 1.14 Plantlets cultured on agar in a ‘wells’ cut in the
biologists to work out or ‘explants Petri dish with agar; each well
what proportion of the several different contains a different
Petri dish is covered with antibiotic discs. strength of enzyme
each type of bacterium. solution
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 What do biologists use in the laboratory?
Centrifuges machine that spins to separate solids from liquids by gravitational force, where
simple filtration is not adequate for the task.
Some solid particles are very tiny and float around in a liquid, although they are not properly
dissolved in the liquid.
Centrifugation is commonly used in hospitals for stool tests where the ability to separate
particles quickly and clearly is very useful.

Figure 1.19 A centrifuge 34

 What do biologists use in the field?
 This is still a large list. But there are some basic tools. These include:

•A quadrat • A data logger – this is used to record information

• A plant press • A pH kit – this is used to measure the pH of soil or

water

• A pitfall traps • A GPS (Global Positioning System) receiver

• A nets to collect and study insects

• A flow meter – this is used to measure the rate of flow of water

• A field microscope – this is used to investigate the structure of specimens in the field, whilst
still fresh

• A theodolite – this is used to measure the height of trees or of slopes in the area
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 What do biologists use in the field?
quadrat a small frame used for ecological or population studies
There are many different types, but the simplest is just a metal square.
It is placed randomly on the ground and the organisms found inside it are counted and the
numbers and types recorded.
This data can be used to make an estimate of the abundance of the organisms in the area.

Figure 1.20 Students recording the contents of a quadrat 36

 What do biologists use in the field?
To collect specimens for identification in the laboratory, biologists use a range of equipment.
Collecting plants is relatively easy, if they are not too large.
Small parts (for example, leaves and flowers) can be collected and kept in reasonable condition
for a short period in plastic jars or plastic bags.
Parts of plants can also be preserved using a plant press.
This preserves the shape and form of the plant parts for some time and specimens can be
analyzed later.

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a plant press
 What do biologists use in the field?
However, animals pose a different problem. Because they move, they must be caught.
Biologists do this in many different ways. Some insects can be caught using nets. Others are
caught using pitfall traps

Figure 1.22 (A) Students using nets to collect and study insects (B) A Barber pitfall trap 38
 What do biologists use in the field?
Some other instruments that biologists use in the field are illustrated below.

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 What do biologists use in the field?
One recent addition to the tool list of field biologists is the GPS (Global Positioning System)
receiver.
This equipment makes it possible to record positions quickly and extremely accurately.
By taking several readings at different points on the perimeter of the area, an accurate map of
the area can be drawn.

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Figure 1.28 A GPS (Global Positioning System) receiver
 2. Biochemical molecules (9hrs.)
Learning competencies

• Group biochemical molecules as inorganic and organic.

• Explain which chemical elements are found most often in biological molecules.
• Describe the properties of water.
• Explain the importance of water to living organisms.
• List and describe the structures of organic molecules in living things and state their functions
• Show the structures and functions of biological molecules using chemical formulae and
examples.
• Identify biologically important compounds by conducting simple food tests.
• Appreciate how biological molecules are obtained from different foods.
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 2.1 Inorganic and organic molecules
Biological molecules can be classified into two main types:
 Inorganic molecules
Organic molecules

Some inorganic molecules Some organic molecules

Calcium carbonate CaCo3 Glucose C 6 H12 06
Carbon dioxide Co 2 Glycine (an amino acid) C 2 H5 NO2
Water H 2O Linoleic acid (a fatty acid) C 18 H32 O2
Iron III oxide Fe 3O4 Methane CH 4
Can you see that the organic molecules always contain both carbon and hydrogen? Inorganic
molecules may contain one of them (or neither), but not both.
Different organic molecules contain different combinations of carbon and hydrogen. They
may also contain other chemical elements.
Most biological organic molecules contain oxygen in addition to carbon and hydrogen and
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some also contain nitrogen.
 Which chemical elements are found most frequently in living organisms?
The elements that are highlighted in the periodic table are the ones that are used to build nearly

all biological molecules.

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 Which chemical elements are found most frequently in living organisms?
The most common elements in many cells are:
Hydrogen (H) 59%

Oxygen (O) 24%

Carbon (C) 11% and Nitrogen (N) 4%

Others (such as phosphorus (P) and Sulphur (S)) 2% combined

Although other elements do have specific functions in biological systems.

Some elements that are important for humans are:

 Calcium (Ca) for bones, teeth and muscles, chlorine (Cl) for digesting food, fluorine (F)
for tooth enamel and iron (Fe) to help blood carry oxygen around the body.
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 Which chemical elements are found most frequently in living organisms?
Element a substance that is made of only one kind of atom

Atoms of elements can join together to form molecules. We call this forming a chemical bond.

 Sometimes two atoms of the same element join together to form a molecule of that element –
for example, we breathe in oxygen molecules, each made of two oxygen atoms. This is why the
formula for oxygen gas is O2.

Atoms of one element can join with atoms of another element to make a molecule of a
compound.

The atoms are always present in the same ratio in all the molecules of the compound.

Each atom can make a certain number of bonds with other atoms; this is called its valency.
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 Which chemical elements are found most frequently in living organisms?
Table 2.2 The number of bonds (valencies) of atoms of the elements most
commonly used to build biological molecules.

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Which chemical elements are found most frequently in living organisms?
Carbon atom can bond with four
hydrogen atoms, each hydrogen atom
can only bond with one carbon.

Because carbon can bond with four

other atoms, it can make large
molecules with chains of carbon atoms.

These are the organic molecules that

are the basis of life.

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 What is water?
Water is made of two hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom.
Notice that the molecule is not ‘straight’ it is bent into a ‘v’ shape. Also, the molecule forms what
we call a ‘dipole’.
Part of the molecule has a slight negative charge (δ–) and other parts have a slight positive charge
(δ+).

Figure 2.5 A molecule of water Figure 2.6 Hydrogen bonding in water

A mass of water (such as the water in a glass or the water in a pond), all the water molecules are
interlinked!
Besides the bonds joining the hydrogen atoms to the oxygen atom, there are very weak bonds – called
hydrogen bonds – that join the oxygen in one water molecule (the slightly negative part) to the 48
 Why is water so important to living things?
Water has many properties that make it important to living things in a number of ways, such as:
A place to live (habitat for several wildlife)

Water is transparent (transfer light to the bottom)

Water has a high specific heat capacity

Ice is less dense than liquid water

Water has a high latent heat of vaporization

Water has a high surface tension

A transport medium

A reactant in many chemical reactions

A place for other reactions to take place
 Water is a vital chemical constituent of living cells 49
 Why is water so important to living things?
Water is a place to live in
Many organisms live in water.
Plants and algae both live in water as do many different types of animals

Figure 2.7: Kelp are giant seaweeds that form ‘kelp forests’ in which many animals live. 50
 Why is water so important to living things?
Water is transparent
This means that light can pass through the water and allow the plants and algae to photosynthesize.
It also means that animals can see where they are going.
However, water does not allow all light to pass through it and as we go deeper and deeper, less
and less light penetrates.
Different wavelengths of light penetrate to different depths. Red and indigo wavelengths are
soon lost. Blue and green wavelengths penetrate deeper than others.

Figure 2.8 Penetration of different

wavelengths of light 51
 Why is water so important to living things?
Water has a high specific heat capacity
This means that it takes quite a lot of energy to heat water up. Water also loses heat quite slowly.
This has the overall effect that water stays more or less the same temperature – particularly
large masses of water, such as oceans and lakes.
This is important as the functioning of enzymes in living cells is affected by temperature.
 Too hot or too cold and the enzymes do not function efficiently and the reactions in the cells
controlled by the enzymes are not carried out efficiently
Ice is less dense than liquid water
 It is unusual for the solid form of a substance to float on the liquid form of the same substance,
but ice floats on water.
 This is because water expands when it freezes. So, in cold weather, water freezes from the top
down.
The ice on the surface then acts as an insulator and slows down the heat loss from the liquid
water underneath. So life can continue in relatively warm water underneath the ice all through
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the cold weather.
 Why is water so important to living things?
Water has a high latent heat of vaporization.
This means that it takes a lot of energy to turn liquid water into water vapors (or steam).
Water doesn’t vaporize too easily and that ponds don’t dry up too quickly in hot weather and the
organisms in the pond have a better chance of survival. This property is also important in
temperature control.
When we sweat, the energy needed to vaporize the sweat comes from our bodies. This heat is
then lost from our bodies and so we cool down. If water vaporized easily, sweating wouldn’t be
as effective in controlling our body temperature.
Water has a high surface tension
 The water molecules in the main body of a mass of water are hydrogen-bonded to other water
molecules on all sides. But at the surface, there is no hydrogen bonding above.
So the ‘pull’ from the sides is stronger than it would otherwise be and the molecules at the
surface are held together more strongly
This is why some animals can ‘walk on water’ and why others can attach themselves to the
53
surface of the water and live just below the surface.
 Why is water so important to living things?

Figure 2.9 The surface Figure 2.10 A water strider Figure 2.11 Mosquito larvae
walking on Water
tension of water

The mosquito larvae in figure 2.11 hang from the surface of the water by their breathing tubes.

The surface tension is sufficiently strong to hold their weight.

54
 Why is water so important to living things?
Water is a transport medium
Water is a good solvent for many substances Many organic and inorganic substances important
to life dissolve in water, but don’t dissolve either at all or as well in other liquids.
Water is very versatile. Because these substances dissolve in water, they can be transported in a
water-based transport medium.
Biological mechanisms such as active transport, diffusion and facilitated diffusion move the
substances into and out of the water (in the transport medium).
In mammals, the plasma of blood is 90% water. This is forced through the system of veins,
arteries and capillaries by the heart.
In plants water carries dissolved minerals upwards from the roots to other parts of the plants
in the xylem vessels. Water in the phloem tubes carries dissolved organic substances all over
the plant.
Water has the ideal viscosity for a transport medium. Viscosity is a measure of how fluid a
liquid is – how easily it flows.
If water were more viscous (less fluid) than it is – think of tar! – then the heart would not be able55to
move it through the blood vessels.
 Why is water so important to living things?
Water as a reactant
Many reactions in living things need water as a raw material.
hydrolysis reactions
Photosynthesis

56
 Why is water so important to living things?
Water as a medium for chemical reactions
Cells function because of the many chemical reactions that are continually taking place in them.

Many of these take place on the membrane systems of the cell, but others take place in the
liquid ‘cytosol’ of the cytoplasm.
Also, many of the reactions of photosynthesis and respiration take place in the liquid inner
regions of chloroplasts and mitochondria respectively.

Water is an ideal medium for these reactions, for some of the reasons:
It can dissolve many substances – the reactions will only take place effectively in solution.
It has a low viscosity – the particles can move around and come easily into contact with
each other.
So, we can see that, without water, life as we know it could not possibly exist. Water is just 57
too
important.
 2.2 Organic molecules
carbohydrates
All carbohydrates contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

Carbohydrates functions:
1. They are used to release energy in respiration
glucose is the main respiratory substrate of most organisms.
2. Carbohydrates are a convenient form in which to store chemical energy; storage
carbohydrates include:
starch in plants
glycogen in animals

3. Some carbohydrates are used to build structures; structural carbohydrates include:

cellulose, which is the main constituent of the primary cell wall of plants
chitin, which occurs in the cell walls of fungi and in the exoskeletons of insects
peptidoglycan, which occurs in bacterial cell walls
58
 Types of carbohydrates
Depends on sugar units carbohydrates are classified into three

1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides
3. Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides
Are the simplest carbohydrates. Monosaccharide molecule are single sugar unit
Monosaccharides can be classified according to number carbon atoms:

1. A triose monosaccharide has three carbon atoms – formula C3 H6 O3. Glycerate phosphate is
a triose important in photosynthesis.
2. A pentose monosaccharide has five carbon atoms – formula C5 H10 O5. Ribose is found in RNA
nucleotides.
3. A hexose monosaccharide has six carbon atoms – formula C6H12O6. Glucose is the hexose
produced in photosynthesis and used in respiration 59
 Types of carbohydrates

Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides can be classified according to the functional group:

1. The aldehyde group with the formula CHO (monosaccharides with this group are aldoses)

2. The ketone group, with the formula C=O (monosaccharides with this group are ketoses).

The main significance of this difference is the ability to polymerise.

Nearly all the polysaccharides found in living things are polymers of aldose monosaccharides.
60
Types of carbohydrates

Monosaccharides

61
 Types of carbohydrates
Disaccharide

Carbohydrate molecules are made by two monosaccharide molecules joining together.

For example, a molecule of:

 Maltose is derived from two α-glucose molecules

Sucrose is derived from an α-glucose molecule and a fructose molecule

 Lactose (milk sugar) is derived from a β-glucose molecule and an α-galactose molecule.

62
 Types of carbohydrates
Disaccharide
A molecule of water (H2O) is formed from a hydroxyl group from one monosaccharide and a
hydrogen atom from the other. This allows a bond to be formed between the two monosaccharide
units to make a disaccharide.
The process called is condensation reaction. The bond that holds the two monosaccharide
units together is a glycosidic bond.
It is formed between carbon atom 1 of one α-glucose molecule and carbon atom 4 of the other
α-glucose molecule.
The full name of the bond is, therefore, a α-1,4-glycosidic bond.

63
Two molecules of α-glucose are joined to form a molecule of maltose (a disaccharide).
 Types of carbohydrates
Disaccharide
 The reverse process of condensation reaction is hydrolysis of the disaccharide.
This involves ‘putting back’ the water that was removed during condensation and splitting the
molecule into its component, smaller molecules.
This is another example of the use of water to split molecules.

Hydrolysis of maltose 64
 Types of carbohydrates
Polysaccharides
 Are complex carbohydrates.

Their molecules are built as many hundreds of monosaccharide molecules join together by
forming condensation links.

Starch is a polymer of α-glucose. Some polysaccharides are storage molecules.

These offer a convenient way of storing carbohydrates that will not interfere with the
metabolism of cells.

Others are structural carbohydrates. As the name suggests, these carbohydrates are used to
build structures like plant cell walls and insect exoskeletons.
65
 Types of carbohydrates
Polysaccharides
Starch
 Starch is not a single compound but a mixture of amylose and amylopectin.
Both are polymers of α-glucose, but the arrangement of the α-glucose monomers in these
compounds is different.
Amylose is a linear molecule containing many hundreds of α-glucose molecules joined by α-
1,4-glycosidic bonds. As it is being formed, this long chain winds itself into a helix.

66
Linkages in amylose
 Types of carbohydrates
Polysaccharides
Starch
 Amylopectin also has a linear ‘backbone’ of α-glucose molecules joined by α-1,4-glycosidic
bonds. But in amylopectin, there are also side branches.

These occur at certain points along the chain when a glucose molecule forms an α-1,6 glycosidic
bond with another glucose molecule as well as the usual α-1,4-glycosidic bond.

This results in amylopectin having a branching structure

The branched nature of amylopectin means that there are many ‘ends’ to the molecule.

This allows it to be quickly hydrolysed by enzymes acting at the ends of the chains to release
67
glucose for respiration.
Types of carbohydrates
Polysaccharides
Starch

68
The structure of amylopectin
 Types of carbohydrates
Polysaccharides
Glycogen
Glycogen is a storage carbohydrate in animal cells.
 It has a similar structure to that of amylopectin, but there are more α-1,6 links, making it much
more highly branched. Because of this, it can be hydrolysed even more quickly to release
glucose for respiration.
This is important because animals have a higher metabolic rate than plants and need to release
energy more quickly to ‘drive’ their metabolic processes.
Cellulose
Cellulose is a polymer of β-glucose molecules joined by β-1,4- glycosidic bonds, formed by
condensation reactions.
However, because of the different position of the H and OH groups on carbon atom 1
compared to α-glucose, every other glucose unit in the chain is upside down. Also, the chain is
unbranched. 69
 Types of carbohydrates
Polysaccharides
Cellulose

Figure:-How cellulose molecules are organized in plant cell walls

Many cellulose molecules lie side by side and hydrogen-bond to each other. This results in the
formation of cellulose microfibrils.
Many of these microfibrils bond together to form bigger fibres or fibrils, which make up the70
 Types of carbohydrates
Summery of the Polysaccharides

71
 Lipids
Like carbohydrates, nearly all lipids contain only the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen,
but they contain much less oxygen than carbohydrates.

Lipids are a varied group of compounds that include:

Triglycerides – formed from glycerol and three fatty acids

Phospholipids – formed from glycerol, two fatty acids and a phosphate group

Waxes – formed from fatty acids and long-chain alcohols

Whilst some lipids have quite large molecules, they are not polymers and, in many cases, their
molecules are relatively small.

‘The feature that they all share is that are all made from fatty acids and alcohols.
72
 Lipids
Lipids function
Because of their varied nature, lipids have a range of functions.
Waxes are so insoluble in water that they make excellent water repellents, for example in
coating birds feathers and the epidermis of the leaves of plants (the waxy cuticle).

Phospholipids are one of the basic components of all cell membranes.

Triglycerides have several functions including:

Respiratory substrate – a molecule of triglyceride yields over twice as many molecules of
ATP (twice as much energy) as a molecule of glucose
Thermal insulation – the cells of adipose tissue found under the skin of many animals
contain large amounts of triglycerides, which give good thermal insulation
Buoyancy – lipids are less dense than water (oil floats on water), so the presence of large
amounts of lipid reduces the density of an animal, making it more buoyant
Waterproofing – the oils secreted by some animals onto their skin are triglycerides 73
 Lipids
Triglycerides
Triglycerides are non-polar, hydrophobic molecules
A triglyceride molecule is an ester formed from one molecule of glycerol and three fatty acid
molecules
Glycerol is a polyhydroxy alcohol. This means it contains more than one hydroxyl (–OH) group.
Fatty acids contain:
 a methyl group at one end of a hydrocarbon chain known as the R group (typically 4 to 24
carbons long) and
at the other is a carboxyl group
o The shorthand chemical formula for a fatty acid is RCOOH

74
Figure:-The structure of a triglyceride
 Lipids
Triglycerides
Fatty acids can vary in two ways:
oLength of the hydrocarbon chain (number of carbon atom, R group)

oThe fatty acid chain (R group) may be saturated (mainly in animal fat) or unsaturated
(mainly vegetable oils, although there are exceptions e.g. coconut and palm oil)

 Unsaturated fatty acids can be mono or poly-unsaturated

o If H atoms are on the same side of the double bond they are cis-fatty acids and are
metabolized by enzymes

o If H atoms are on opposite sides of the double bond they are trans-fatty acids and cannot form
enzyme-substrate complexes, and therefore are not metabolized. 'Trans-fat' is linked with
coronary heart disease 75
 Lipids
Triglycerides

76
 Lipids
Triglycerides
When triglyceride molecules are formed, condensation reactions take place to join three fatty
acid molecules to a glycerol molecule. The bonds formed are called ester bonds.
These ester bonds can be broken by hydrolysis to give glycerol and fatty acids once again.

Figure:-The formation of a triglyceride. 77

 Lipids
Phospholipids
Phospholipids are a type of lipid, therefore they are formed from the monomers glycerol and
fatty acids
Unlike triglycerides, there are only two fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule in a
phospholipid as one has been replaced by a Phosphate ion (PO4-3)
Since the phosphate group is ionic and the hydrocarbon chains of the two fatty acids are
covalently bonded, there are two distinct regions to a phospholipid molecule:

As the phosphate is polar it is soluble in water (hydrophilic)

The fatty acid ‘tails’ are non-polar and therefore insoluble in water (hydrophobic)

Phospholipids are amphipathic (they have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts)

As a result of having hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts, phospholipid molecules form
78
 Lipids
Phospholipids

79
The structure of a phospholipid The structure of a phospholipid monolayer & bilayer
 proteins
Their molecules contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (like carbohydrates and
lipids), but they also contain nitrogen and most contain Sulphur.
Protein molecules are polymers of amino acids and so are macromolecules.
But they vary enormously in size; the smallest protein molecules contain fewer than 100 amino
acids, whilst the largest contain several thousand.
Proteins function
Proteins are extremely important for cell growth, cell repair and structure
They form all of the following:
o Enzymes
o Cell membrane proteins (e.g. carrier)
o Hormones
o Immunoproteins (e.g. immunoglobulins)
o Transport proteins (e.g. hemoglobin)
o Structural proteins (e.g. keratin, collagen)
80
o Contractile proteins (e.g. myosin)
 proteins
Amino acids
Amino acids are the monomers of polypeptides
There are 20 amino acids found in proteins common to all living organisms
The general structure of all amino acids is a central carbon atom bonded to:
o An amine group –NH
o A carboxylic acid group –COOH
o A hydrogen atom
o An R group (which is how each amino acid differs and why amino acid properties differ
e.g. whether they are acidic or basic or whether they are polar or non-polar)

81
 proteins
Amino acids

The generalized structure of an amino acid

Amino acids are bonded together by covalent peptide bonds to form a dipeptide in a condensation
82
reaction
 proteins
Structure of proteins
A dipeptide can be enlarged into a polypeptide by condensation with more amino acid
molecules.
Many amino acids joined by peptide bonds form a polypeptide chain; this sequence of amino
acids is the primary structure of the protein.
Once primary structure formed, the polypeptide chain folds itself into a secondary structure,
which is either an α-helix or a β-pleated sheet (see figure 2.36).
The structures are held in place by hydrogen bonds that form between peptide bonds in
adjacent parts of the amino acid chain.

Both types of secondary structure can exist in different regions of the same polypeptide chain.

A protein molecule can also have a tertiary structure.

This involves further folding of the secondary structure and the formation of new bonds
to hold the tertiary structure in place. 83
 proteins
Structure of proteins
These new bonds include:
more hydrogen bonds – between the R-groups of some amino acids
disulphide bridges – between amino acids that contain sulphur
ionic bonds – between amino acids with positively charged R-groups and those with
negatively charged R-groups

Each protein has a unique tertiary structure and so has a unique configuration (shape) because:
The primary structure of each protein is coded for by DNA, which determines the type and
position of each amino acid in the polypeptide chain
The secondary structure of the molecule is the consequence of its primary structure; some
sections of the primary structures form α-helices, others form β-pleated sheets, and
 The secondary structure determines where ionic and hydrogen bonds and disulphide
bridges form, so it determines the tertiary structure and shape of the protein molecule.
84
 proteins
Structure of proteins

Figure 2.36 The levels of structure of a protein 85

 proteins
Structure of proteins
The tertiary structure of a protein is unique and this gives each protein a specific function. For
example:
 The shape of the active site of an enzyme molecule lets it bind with only one substrate and
catalyse only one reaction
The shape of a hormone receptor in the plasma membrane of some cells allows the
hormone to bind with this receptor and to target only cells that have this receptor
The shape of an antibody means it can bind with and destroy just one antigen

Some proteins have yet another level of organization called the quaternary structure.
In these proteins two, or more, polypeptide chains folded into a tertiary structure become
associated in the final structure of the protein.

Two important examples are haemoglobin (the oxygen-carrying molecule found in red blood
86
cells) and collagen (the fibrous protein found in many tissues in mammals).
 proteins
Structure of proteins

Figure: A The four polypeptides in hemoglobin's quaternary structure; B The three polypeptides
in collagen’s quaternary structure
Proteins are classified into two main groups, according to their molecular shapes:

1. fibrous proteins that have a tertiary structure that resembles a long string or fibre (for
example, collagen and keratin)
2. globular proteins that have a tertiary structure that resembles a globule or ball (for example,
enzymes and receptor proteins). 87
 Nucleic acids
Biologists discovered two different types of nucleic acid at the end of the nineteenth century:
DNA or DeoxyriboNucleic Acid – DNA is the nucleic acid found in chromosomes.
Each gene is a short section of DNA that codes for a specific protein and, as a result,
determines a particular feature. DNA is the genetic material.

RNA or RiboNucleic Acid – RNA is a nucleic acid found both in the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
Different types of RNA are involved in allowing a specific gene (DNA) to produce the protein
it codes for.
Both types of nucleic acids are made from structures called nucleotides. All nucleotides have
the same basic structure.
All nucleotides have the same three components:
1. a phosphate group
2. a pentose sugar (deoxyribose in DNA nucleotides and ribose in RNA nucleotides), and
3. one of four nitrogenous bases – Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine and either Thymine (DNA)
or Uracil (RNA). 88
Nucleic acids

89
 Nucleic acids
DNA is a huge molecule made up of two strands of nucleotides wound into a double helix.
RNA is much smaller and is single-stranded.

Figure: The structures of DNA and RNA 90

 Nucleic acids
Comparison of DNA and RNA nucleic acids

91
 How can we find out which biological molecules are in foods?
There are biochemical tests for a range of biological molecules.
These include:

Iodine test for starch

Benedict test for reducing sugars

Benedict test for non-reducing sugars

 Emulsion test for lipids

Biuret Test for proteins.

92
How can we find out which biological molecules are in foods?

93
How can we find out which biological molecules are in foods?

94
How can we find out which biological molecules are in foods?

95
How can we find out which biological molecules are in foods?

96
 Unit-3: cell biology (10hrs)

 This unit possesses the following main contents:

 Cell theory

 Types of cell

 Parts of the cell and their functions

 The cell and its environment

 Cellular respiration

97
 3.1 CELL THEORY
Cell conceptualization:
Cell is the structural and basic building blocks of life.

Many important organisms are very small and biologists need to be able to see them.

The scientists need to be able to see cells to understand living organisms.

Today it is noted that living things are made of cells.

Billions of cells in the case of human beings, just one cell in the case of organisms like
amoeba.
All living organisms have certain characteristics in common, which they carry out regardless
of whether they have one cell or millions.

98
 3.1 CELL THEORY
The seven life processes that are common to most living organisms are:

1. Nutrition – all living organisms need food to provide them with the energy used by their cells
(autotrophic and heterotrophic).

2. Respiration – the process by which living organisms get the energy from their food.

3. Excretion – getting rid of the waste products produced by the cells.

4. Growth – living organisms get bigger. They increase in both size and mass, using chemicals from
their food to build new material.

5. Irritability – all living organisms are sensitive to changes in their surroundings.

6. Movement – all living organisms need to move to get near to things they need or away from
problems. Animals move using muscles, plants move more slowly using growth.

7. Reproduction – producing offspring is vital to the long-term survival of any type of living organism.
99
3.1 CELL THEORY

100
 3.1 CELL THEORY

Discovery of the cell

It seems strange that the idea of organisms being made from cells is a relatively recent idea.
Only a few hundred years ago, cells had not been discovered.

Their discovery had to wait for the development of reliable microscopes that could magnify
sufficiently to show the cellular structure of living organisms.

Many biologists and other scientists contributed to the discovery of cells and the statement of
the very first cell theory.

Cell theory refers to the idea that cells are the basic unit of structure in every living thing.

101
3.1 CELL THEORY

102
3.1 CELL THEORY

103
3.1 CELL THEORY

104
3.1 CELL THEORY

105
 3.1 CELL THEORY
The timeline below shows some of the major contributors:

106
 3.1 CELL THEORY
Cell size and its measurement
How big are cells?  It all depends on what kind of cell you are measuring.
For instance, the contents of a chicken’s egg are just one huge cell packed with food.
 it’s a pretty big cell, up to 5 cm (0.05 m) in length.

On the other hand, the smallest bacterial cells are only just over 100 nm in length.
What units shall we measure cells in?  There are three smaller units commonly used:
Millimeters (mm) – 1/1000 of a meter
Micrometers (μm) – 1/1000 of a millimeter, and 1/1 000 000 of a meter
Nanometers (nm) – 1/1000 of a micrometer, 1/1 000 000 of a millimeter, and 1/1000 000
000 of a meter. These measurement units have conversion form:

107
 3.1 CELL THEORY
Cell size and its measurement

108
 3.1 CELL THEORY
Cell size and its measurement

109
 3.1 CELL THEORY
Cell size and its measurement

110
 3.2 Types of cell
Cells are grouped into two by their possession of nucleus:
1. Prokaryotic cell
2. Eukaryotic cell
A prokaryotic cell is a type of cell that does not have a nucleus.
The word prokaryotic is derived from the Greek pro (before) and karyos (nuclear).
The eukaryotic cell is a type of cell that has a nucleus.
The word eukaryotic is derived from the Greek eu (true) and karyos (nuclear).
It can be as a single cell or many cells by its structural complexity.
The organism possesses either of that cells called:

Unicellular organisms single-celled organisms (microorganisms).

Multicellular organisms  many-celled organisms (larger organisms).

111
 3.2 Types of cell
Many biologists believe that prokaryotic cells were the first type of cells to be formed when
life first evolved.
Prokaryotic cells are much smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells.
These cells must carry out all the same functions that a eukaryotic cell carries out in order to
survive.
There is therefore some division of labor within the cell.
Division of labor is the specialization of different parts to carry out certain functions.
There are specialized regions for certain functions (organelles).

112
 3.2 Types of cell
There are different types of the eukaryotic cell, but all of them have a number of features in
common.

113
 3.2 Types of cell
Eukaryotic cells are clearly much more complex cells than prokaryotic cells.

What is really different about them is that there are many more different individual structures,
called organelles.
There are many more membranes in the cell that form the complex membrane system called the
endoplasmic reticulum. In addition to these, several of the organelles are surrounded by
membranes. These are the:
 Nucleus

 Mitochondria

 Chloroplasts (present in the plant cell)

 Lysosomes

 Golgi apparatus
114
 3.2 Types of cell
Origin of eukaryotic cells
One theory is that the ‘modern’ eukaryotic cell was formed when several of the more primitive
prokaryotic cells ‘got together’
The theory that states the origin of eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic organism is called the
endosymbiont theory and it was first proposed by the biologist Lynn Margulis.

115
 3.2 Types of cell
The differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

116
 3.3. parts of cell and their functions
The importance of cell membrane
The membrane that surrounds and encloses a cell is sometimes called the cell surface
membrane, but most biologists now refer to it as the plasma membrane.
It has little mechanical strength to support the cell, It plays a crucial role in:
Controlling what enters and leaves the cell; Moves substances in and out of the cell by:
Simple diffusion Bulk transport:
 Facilitated diffusion Endocytosis –
Osmosis Phagocytosis
Active transport Pinocytosis
Receptor mediated endocytosis
Exocytosis
Cell signaling Various molecules in the membrane allow the cell to be recognized by:
Hormones
The immune system (in animals) and
Growth regulator substances, such as auxins (in plants).
117
 3.3. parts of cell and their functions
The cell membrane model
 The basis of plasma membranes is a phospholipid bilayer. There have been several models
of the structure of the plasma membrane.
Table 4.3 shows some key events in developing the current model of membrane structure.

118
3.3. parts of cell and their functions
The Davson–Danielli model
 In 1935, Davson and Danielli knew that both proteins
and phospholipids were involved in the structure of
plasma membranes.
 Davson and Danielli suggested a kind of ‘sandwich’
of protein and phospholipid
 In 1954 they proposed a revised model in which they
included protein-lined pores.
As more and more evidence accumulated about how
molecules
moved across membranes, it became clear that the not
adequately explain all the new evidence. The
model therefore had to be rejected.

119
 3.3. parts of cell and their functions
The fluid mosaic model
As more and more evidence accumulated about how
molecules moved across membranes, it became clear
that the Davson–Danielli model could not adequately
explain all the new evidence. The model therefore had to
be rejected.
In 1972, Singer and Nicholson proposed a totally
different arrangement of the phospholipids and proteins
in the plasma membrane. They retained the idea of a
phospholipid bilayer, but rejected the sandwich
arrangement.
Instead, they suggested that proteins were ‘studded’
into the bilayer at different points. They also suggested Figure 4.21 The Davson–Danielli
that the arrangement was not static, but was fluid and model and the fluid mosaic model
constantly changing.
Figure 4.21 shows the difference between the Davson–
Danielli model and the original fluid mosaic model. 120
 3.3. parts of cell and their functions
The fluid mosaic model
Our current idea of membrane structure still assumes this fluid-mosaic nature,
but there is now much more detail to the model, as figure 4.22 shows.

121
Figure 4.22 The current fluid mosaic model of membrane structure
 3.3. parts of cell and their functions
The fluid mosaic model
The key features of the model as we currently understand it are:

1. The phospholipid bilayer as the basis for the membrane

2. Integral proteins (also known as intrinsic proteins and transmembrane proteins) that
span the membrane.
Some of these proteins play an important role in moving substances across the membrane.

There are three main types of these transport proteins: –

a. Channel proteins – these proteins have a channel through them along which a specific ion
can pass.
There are different channel proteins for different ions.
b. Carrier proteins – these proteins act in a more sophisticated way to move larger molecules
through the membrane by facilitated diffusion or active transport.
The ones involved in active transport are often referred to as pumps. 122
 3.3. parts of cell and their functions
The fluid mosaic model
c. Peripheral proteins (also known as extrinsic proteins) that span only one layer of the membrane.
They have a range of functions:

Some are enzymes,

Others anchor integral proteins to the cytoskeleton

3. Glycoproteins and glycolipids – protein and lipid molecules that have carbohydrate chains attached
to them and often serve as signals to other cells.
They also act as receptor sites for hormones and drugs.

The carbohydrate component of each can be cell specific and so allow identification of the cell by

the immune system.

4. Cholesterol – reduces the fluidity of the membrane. 123

3.3. parts of cell and their functions
The fluid mosaic model

124
 3.3. parts of cell and their functions
The nucleus
The nucleus typically occupies about 10% of the volume of a cell. It has
several components:
• The nuclear envelope is a double membrane that surrounds the
nucleus. There are many nuclear pores, which allow the passage of
some molecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

• The nucleolus is an organelle within the nucleus. It is not

membrane-bound. Its function is to synthesize the components of
ribosomes, which then pass through the nuclear pores into the
cytoplasm.

• Chromatin consists of DNA molecules bound with proteins called

histones. For most of the cell cycle, the chromatin fibres are loosely
dispersed throughout the nucleus. Just before a cell is about to divide,
the chromatin condenses into distinct, recognizable structures called
125
chromosomes
 3.3. parts of cell and their functions
Mitochondria
• Mitochondria are the sites of most of the reactions of aerobic respiration. They are surrounded
by two membranes.
 The inner membrane is folded into cristae to increase the available surface area.
 Some of the reactions of aerobic respiration take place in the fluid matrix.
• The folded inner membrane provides a large surface area for the electron-transport system,
which produces most of the ATP

126
3.3. parts of cell and their functions
Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.

• They can be found free in the cytoplasm,

• but are also bound the endoplasmic

reticulum, forming rough endoplasmic
reticulum.

• Each ribosome comprises two subunits that

are made from RNA and protein.

• The subunits are manufactured in the

nucleolus.

• They leave the nucleus through nuclear pores

127
and combine in the cytoplasm.
 3.3. parts of cell and their functions
Endoplasmic reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a membrane system found throughout the cytoplasm of eukaryotic
cells.
There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum:
1. Rough ER has ribosomes on its surface and is responsible for the manufacture and
transport of proteins.
 Protein molecules manufactured by the ribosomes pass through small pores into the lumen
(inner space) of the ER.
 They are then moved in a vesicle to the Golgi body.
 Rough ER is extensive in cells that manufacture a lot of protein, such as cells that
manufacture enzymes to be secreted into the lumen of the intestine.

2. Smooth ER has no ribosomes on its surface.

1. It is concerned with the synthesis of lipids.
2. It is also associated with carbohydrate metabolism and detoxification.
128
3.3. parts of cell and their functions
Golgi apparatus (or Golgi body)
• The Golgi apparatus consists of a number of flattened membrane
bound sacs in which proteins are modified. Proteins may be
converted into glycoproteins, for example.

• Many of the modifications added in the Golgi apparatus act as a

kind of ‘tag’, which determine the final destination of the
molecule.

• Think of the Golgi apparatus as a cellular post office that labels

and then distributes molecules!

• Many of the modified molecules are released from the Golgi

apparatus in vesicles to be carried to other parts of the cell or to
the plasma membrane to pass out of the cell by exocytosis to be
used elsewhere.
• Some vesicles form the lysosomes. 129
 3.3. parts of cell and their functions

Lysosomes

• Lysosomes have no specialized internal structure and are surrounded by a single membrane.

• They are formed in the Golgi apparatus and contain digestive enzymes that break down
cellular waste and debris.

• Lysosomes are particularly abundant in phagocytic white blood cells. Here, enzymes from the
lysosomes digest foreign cells that have been engulfed.

• The organelles we have described so far are found in all eukaryotic cells.

• However, not all eukaryotic cells are the same. In particular, there are important differences
between plant and animal cells.
130
 3.3. parts of cell and their functions
Organelles found in plant cells

Cell wall
• The criss-cross arrangement of cellulose fibres in the cell wall gives it both strength and
elasticity.
• Because there are large ‘gaps’ (on a molecular scale) between the fibres, the cell wall is freely
permeable.

Vacuole
• The vacuole in a plant cell is a fluid-filled sac that stores a range of solutes. It is also
important in maintaining the turgidity, or turgor, of a cell.

• When the vacuole is full of liquid (mainly water), it exerts pressure on the cytoplasm and, in
turn, on the cell wall.

• If the vacuole loses water by osmosis, the pressure reduces and turgor is lost. The cell becomes
flaccid (see the section on osmosis). 131
 3.3. parts of cell and their functions
Organelles found in plant cells
Chloroplast
• Chloroplasts are surrounded by two membranes, like mitochondria, but, unlike mitochondria,
the inner membrane is not folded.
• There are two main regions in chloroplasts that are linked to the stages of photosynthesis:
Membranous regions called grana (each of which is a stack of thylakoids) where the
light-dependent reactions occur, and
A fluid stroma – where the light-independent reactions occur.

132
 3.3. parts of cell and their functions
The study the different organelles
• This has been possible because of a technique called cell fractionation.
• The technique is based on the fact that the masses of organelles vary and depend on their size.
• When a mixture of organelles is spun in a centrifuge, the various types settle out at different
speeds of spinning.
• The large nucleus requires a relatively low centrifuge speed to make it settle out; the much
smaller ribosomes require a much higher speed. The technique is carried out as follows:
 The cells are homogenized in a blender and filtered to remove debris. The homogenized
sample is placed in an ultracentrifuge and spun at low speed. The nuclei settle out, forming
a pellet.
 The supernatant (the suspension containing the remaining organelles) is spun at a higher
speed – chloroplasts settle out (if plant tissue is used).
 The supernatant is spun at a higher speed still – mitochondria settle out.
The process is repeated at ever higher speeds until all the organelles have been separated.
 The process is shown in figure 4.43 133
3.3. parts of cell and their functions
The study the different organelles

134
3.4. The cell and its environment

135
 3.4. The cell and its environment
Passive processes
Simple diffusion
• In fluids – liquids and gases – the particles that
make up the fluid are free to move around.

• This kinetic energy is what drives diffusion. When

particles diffuse across a plasma membrane, there
must be a concentration difference between the
two sides of the membrane (a concentration
gradient) to drive the process.

• As diffusion proceeds, the high concentration will

decrease and the low concentration will increase
until the two concentrations are the same.
• At this point there will be no further net diffusion.
We say that the concentrations are in equilibrium.
Figures 4.24 and 4.25 show this. 136
 3.4. The cell and its environment
Simple diffusion
The rate at which diffusion across a membrane takes place is influenced by:
 The concentration gradient – a bigger difference in concentration results in faster
diffusion than a smaller gradient

 The thickness of the membrane – as all plasma membranes are the same thickness, this
is not really an issue when considering diffusion into and out of cells, but for other
situations where Particles must cross some kind of barrier, a shorter distance results in
faster diffusion

 The surface area of the membrane – clearly if there is more membrane where
diffusion can take place, diffusion will happen faster

137
 3.4. The cell and its environment
Facilitated diffusion
• Facilitated diffusion is essentially the same process as diffusion, in that it
depends on a concentration gradient to allow particles to cross the
membrane.

• However, it differs in that the particles must be helped to diffuse across

the membrane by a carrier protein or a channel protein with an ion
pore.

• However, also note that whilst the ions can simply move straight through
the ion pore of a channel protein, the carrier protein must undergo a
conformational change (change in shape) to move particles through the
membrane.

• The rate of facilitated diffusion is affected by the same factors that affect
simple diffusion with the exception that it is not the actual surface area
of the membrane that determines the rate, but the number of carrier 138
proteins (or channel proteins) present
 3.4. The cell and its environment
Osmosis
• Osmosis is the process by which water moves across a partially permeable membrane. It is,
effectively, the diffusion of water. However, we do not refer to the concentration of water
molecules, but to water potential.
• We can say that osmosis is the movement of water from a system with a high water potential to
a system with a low water potential across a partially permeable membrane.
• The symbol for water potential is the Greek letter Ψ (psi). Water potential is measured in units
of pressure – pascals (Pa), kilopascals (kPa) or megapascals (MPa).
• Pure, liquid water has a higher water potential than any other system. It is defined as zero:
• Ψ (pure water) = 0 Pa
• All other systems (cells, solutions and suspensions) have a water potential that is lower than
that of water. Therefore, their water potential values must be negative. So we can define osmosis
more accurately as follows:
• Osmosis is the movement of water from a system with a high (less negative) water potential to
one with a lower (more negative) water potential, across a partially permeable membrane. 139
 3.4. The cell and its environment
Osmosis
The rate at which osmosis proceeds is influenced by the same factors as simple diffusion:
surface area of the membrane
difference in water potential
distance the molecules must travel
What happens to cells placed in solutions of different concentrations?
This depends on what type of cell. Animal cells have no cell wall, whereas plant cells do and this
has a significant influence on the outcome.
The difference in water potential between cell and solution will determine whether water enters
or leaves by osmosis.
When comparing the water potential of a solution to that of a cell, we could describe it as:
Isotonic – having the same water potential as the cell
Hypertonic – having a lower (more negative) water potential than the cell
Hypotonic – having a higher (less negative) water potential than the cell
140
3.4. The cell and its environment
Osmosis

Animal cells
 As shows what happens when red blood cells
are placed in different solutions.

 In the hypertonic solution, the cells lose water

by osmosis and shrink.

 In the hypotonic solution, the cells gain water

by osmosis and swell.
 The pressure will eventually burst the weak
plasma membrane: this is called haemolysis.

 There is no change in the isotonic solution.

141
 3.4. The cell and its environment
Osmosis
Plant cells
• In the hypertonic solution, the cytoplasm of the cells loses water by osmosis and shrinks.
Because of this, there is no pressure from the cytoplasm on the cell wall. The cell is said to be
flaccid. If the cytoplasm shrinks too much, it loses contact with the cell wall and we say the
cell has been plasmolysed.

• In the hypotonic solution, the cells gain water by osmosis and swell. However, because of the
cell wall, the cell cannot become much larger. Plant cells in this condition are turgid.

 Turgidity is important in supporting young, non-woody plant stems. If the plant is kept well
watered, the cells will remain turgid.
 The turgid cells will press against each other and this pressure will keep the plant upright.
 If the plant is not watered, the cells will be plasmolysed and become flaccid. They will no
longer press against each other and the support will be lost. The plant will wilt
142
• There is no change in the isotonic solution.
 3.4. The cell and its environment
Osmosis
Plant cells

 Figure 4.29 The effect of different solutions on plant cell

Figure 4.29 The effect of different solutions on plant cell

143
 3.4. The cell and its environment
Active processes
Active transport
• Sometimes, substances must be moved against a concentration
gradient – from a low concentration to a higher one.

• This cannot happen by diffusion, since it would tend to concentrate

particles rather than spread them out.

• It can only happen if metabolic energy is used to drive the process.

In living organisms, this energy is released from the ATP produced
in respiration.

• When the energy is released from ATP, it is broken down into ADP
and P i (inorganic phosphate).

• The proteins used to actively transport substances across plasma

144
membranes are called pumps
 3.4. The cell and its environment
Active processes
Endocytosis
Endocytosis: in this process, large particles are engulfed by a cell.
There are several ways in which it can happen, but, essentially, part of the plasma membrane
surrounds the particles to form a vesicle which is then processed by the cell.
All of them require ATP to move the membrane around the particles to form the vesicle.
• Phagocytosis involves the creation of pseudopodia (extensions of the plasma membrane)
to enclose large particles or even whole organisms outside the cell.
 Once enclosed by the pseudopodia, they form an internal vesicle which is then moved
further inside the cell.
• Pinocytosis involves the ingestion of liquid particles (but particles that are still too large to
cross the membrane by other methods) and does not require the formation of large
pseudopodia to engulf the particles.
• Receptor-mediated endocytosis  the membrane enfolds to form vesicles only in regions
where particles have bound to specific receptors. The binding stimulates the enfolding
145
 3.4. The cell and its environment
Active processes
Endocytosis

Figure 4.33 Endocytosis can occur in a number of ways. 146

 3.4. The cell and its environment
Active processes
Exocytosis
Exocytosis: in this process, substances are moved from the inside to the outside of the cell
effectively, the reverse of endocytosis.
It is the process by which enzymes and hormones are secreted.
Again, ATP is used to alter the configuration of the membrane.
 3.4. The cell and its environment
The transport processes comparison

148
 3.5. cellular respiration
Cellular respiration is a series of chemical reactions that break down glucose to produce ATP,
which may be used as energy to power many reactions throughout the body.
The full name for ATP is Adenosine Tri-Phosphate.
All nucleotides contain:
 a nitrogenous base (ATP contains adenine)
 a pentose sugar
 a phosphate group

Figure 5.1 A nucleotide containing the nitrogenous base adenine

149
 3.5. cellular respiration
The ATP molecule is based on this nucleotide.
It is sometimes described as a phosphorylated nucleotide.
ATP is essentially the adenine nucleotide with two extra phosphate groups added on –
making three in all.
Adding the extra phosphates requires energy, particularly when the third phosphate is added and
as a result, energy is stored in the ATP molecule.
When the bonds that hold this third phosphate in place are broken, the energy is released
again.

Figure 5.2 The structure of the ATP 150

 3.5. cellular respiration
When the third phosphate is removed from ATP, we are still left with a phosphorylated
nucleotide, but this one only has two phosphate nucleotides. It is Adenosine Di-Phosphate – or
ADP.
The phosphate group that is split off is usually written as Pi as a kind of shorthand to save
writing out the full formula.
The inter-conversion of ADP and ATP is shown in figure 5.3.
Notice that the diagram says that the energy to form ATP can come from ‘sunlight or from
food’. This is because ATP is formed in both photosynthesis and in cellular respiration.

Figure 5.3 The inter-conversion

of ADP and ATP
151
 3.5. cellular respiration
How is ATP adapted to an energy transfer molecule in cells?
Sunlight energy cannot be used directly by plants and certainly not by other organisms to
‘drive’ the synthesis of proteins or any other molecules.
 The same applies to the energy held in a glucose molecule.
These two energy sources must be used to produce ATP, which is used to transfer the energy to
the relevant cellular process. We say that it is coupled to these processes.

152
 3.5. cellular respiration

How is ATP adapted to an energy transfer molecule in cells?

ATP is adapted to energy transfer because of it:
Releases energy in relatively small amounts that are closely matched to the amounts of
energy required in many biological processes occurring inside cells.
Releases energy in a single-step hydrolysis reaction, so the energy can be released quickly.
Is able to move around the cell easily, but cannot escape from the cell.

Examples of processes that require energy from ATP include:

The synthesis of macromolecules – such as proteins
Active transport across a plasma membrane
Muscle contraction
Conduction of nerve impulses
The initial reactions of respiration (the later reactions release energy from glucose to form
153
more ATP)
 3.5. cellular respiration
How is ATP produced in a cell?
The formation of ATP involves an enzyme called ATP
synthase.
ATP synthase is found in both the membranes of a
mitochondrion and a membrane in a chloroplast.

In both photosynthesis and cellular respiration, many of the

reactions generate the hydrogen ions that will pass through
the ATP synthase to produce ATP.

It works, as a kind of molecular ‘water wheel’.

When the rotor is made to spin by hydrogen ions passing
through it,
the energy of the spinning is used to activate sites in the
catalytic knob that convert ADP and Pi to ATP 154
 3.5. cellular respiration
How is ATP produced in respiration?
There are two main pathways by which respiration can produce ATP:
• The aerobic pathway (aerobic respiration) – this requires the presence of oxygen;
• The anaerobic pathway (anaerobic respiration and fermentation) – this can take
place in the absence of oxygen.
How is ATP produced in anaerobic respiration?
A small amount of ATP is produced in a way that does not involve the ATP synthase
molecule by a method called substrate-level phosphorylation.

In this process, another molecule such as phosphoenol pyruvate (the substrate) is able
to transfer a phosphate group directly to ADP.

It is catalyzed by other enzymes than ATP synthase. This process only produces a
relatively small amount of the ATP ( it produces about 10% of the total ATP produced).
155
 3.5. cellular respiration
How is ATP produced in aerobic respiration?
About 90% of the ATP produced in aerobic respiration
that is catalyzed by ATP synthase.

Many different organic molecules can be respired

they are called respiratory substrates.

But, glucose is the most commonly respired substrate.

156
 3.5. cellular respiration
How are hydrogen ions transferred from glucose to ATP synthase?
Two molecules are important in this transfer process :
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD)
Flavine Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD)
Both are coenzymes are capable of accepting hydrogen ions. In this case, these molecules
have been reduced.
The reduced forms of the molecules as NADH and FADH or called as NAD(reduced) and
FAD(reduced).
These molecules can release their hydrogen ions and become oxidized again and be written as
NAD and FAD.
The hydrogen ions can then be used to turn the rotor of ATP synthase.

157
 3.5. cellular respiration
How are hydrogen ions transferred from glucose to ATP synthase?

158
 3.5. cellular respiration
What are the stages of aerobic cellular respiration of glucose?

There are four stages in the aerobic cellular respiration of glucose:

1. Glycolysis (anaerobic respiration)

 Preparatory phase

 Energy payoff phase

2. The link reaction (Pyruvate oxidation)

3. Krebs cycle

4. Electron transport and chemiosmosis

159
 3.5. cellular respiration
What are the stages of aerobic cellular respiration of glucose?
1. The first stage, glycolysis, takes place in the cytoplasm. It does not take place inside the
mitochondria because:
the glucose molecule cannot diffuse through the mitochondrial membranes (it is a
medium-sized molecule and is not lipid soluble), and
there are no carrier proteins to transport the glucose molecule across the membranes.
Glycolysis (literally ‘glucose splitting’) results in glucose being converted into a smaller
molecule containing only three carbon atoms – pyruvate.
Pyruvate can enter the mitochondria and so all the other stages take place inside the
mitochondrion.
2. In the link reaction, pyruvate is then converted into a two-carbon compound that enters into a
cycle of reactions
3. The Krebs cycle (named after Sir Hans Krebs who discovered the reactions involved). Both
these stages take place in the fluid matrix of a mitochondrion.
160
 3.5. cellular respiration
What are the stages of aerobic cellular respiration of glucose?
In all three stages (glycolysis, the link reaction and Krebs cycle), hydrogen atoms are
transferred to NAD to produce reduced NAD. The Krebs cycle also produces reduced FAD.
These molecules later release their hydrogen atoms as protons (hydrogen ions) and electrons in
the final stage of aerobic respiration.
4. The electrons pass along a series of molecules called an electron transport chain.
The protons are used in the chemiosmotic synthesis of ATP as they spin the rotor of the
ATP synthase enzyme located in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion.
Eventually, the protons (hydrogen ions) and electrons will combine with oxygen to form
water.
Without the oxygen, this cannot happen as there is nothing at the end of the electron
transport chain to accept the electrons.
The electron transport chain grinds to a halt and so does the production of ATP by ATP
synthase.
Because it is oxygen-dependent, this method of production of ATP is called oxidative
phosphorylation. 161
 3.5. cellular respiration

What happens in glycolysis?

The
preparatory
phase /energy
investment
phase

The energy
payoff
phase

162
 3.5. cellular respiration

what happen in the link reaction:

A molecule of pyruvate reacts with a molecule of coenzyme A
(CoA) to form a molecule of acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA).

Hydrogen is lost and reduced NAD is formed (NADH);

removing hydrogen from a molecule is dehydrogenation.

A carbon atom is lost to form carbon dioxide; removing carbon

from a molecule is decarboxylation.

The acetyl coenzyme A then reacts with (a 4C molecule) called

oxaloacetate.
This is the first reaction of the Krebs cycle. 163
 3.5. cellular respiration

What happens in the Krebs cycle?

164
 3.5. cellular respiration

What happens in the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis?

The electron transport chain and chemiosmosis together make up the process of oxidative
phosphorylation.
The link reaction and Krebs cycle take place in the fluid matrix of the mitochondrion,
The electron transport chain and chemiosmosis take place on the inner mitochondrial
membrane.

Figure 5.14 The carrier molecules in the electron transport 165

chain on the inner membrane of a mitochondrion
 3.5. cellular respiration

What happens in the electron transport chain and

chemiosmosis?
On the cristae, the following events take place:
The hydrogen atoms carried by reduced NAD and reduced FAD are released and split into protons
(hydrogen ions) and electrons
The electrons pass along a series of electron carriers that form the transport chain; they lose energy as
they pass from one carrier to the next.
Three of the electron carriers are proton pumps that move protons from the matrix of the mitochondrion
to the inter-membrane space.
As the electrons are transferred through these three proton pumps, the energy they lose powers the
pumps which move the protons into the inter-membrane space
Electrons from reduced NAD make this happen at all three pumps.
The molecules that act as electron carriers in the electron transport chain are:
reduced NAD dehydrogenase (also a proton pump)
Ubiquinone (also a proton pump), and 166
 3.5. cellular respiration

What happens in the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis?

At the end of the electron transport chain, the electrons combine with protons and with oxygen
to form molecules of water.

Because of this, oxygen is known as the terminal electron acceptor.

Reduced NAD is dehydrogenated by the NAD dehydrogenase complex,

reduced FAD is dehydrogenated by ubiquinone.

So electrons from reduced FAD only operate two of the three proton pumps.
Because of the action of the proton pumps, protons accumulate in the inter-membrane space
creating a higher concentration than in the matrix (on the other side of the membrane).
This proton gradient results in protons diffusing through the ATP synthase molecule (down the
concentration gradient) making the synthase rotor ‘spin’ and produce ATP from ADP and Pi.
The diffusion of hydrogen ions through the ATP synthase is chemiosmosis. 167
 3.5. cellular respiration

What happens in the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis?

The oxidation of one molecule of reduced NAD results in six protons passing through ATP
synthase and so leads to the synthesis of three molecules of ATP.
The oxidation of one molecule of reduced FAD results in four protons passing through ATP
synthase and so leads to the synthesis of just two molecules of ATP.
By adding up the number of molecules of ATP produced, the model of aerobic respiration we
have discussed predicts that there will be a net yield of 38 molecules of ATP per molecule of
glucose.
In practice, this is not achieved because some energy (the equivalent of just over two molecules
of ATP) is used to drive the proton pumps.
The actual yield is about 36 molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose.

168
 3.5. cellular respiration

Summary of ATP Production in an aerobic stage

169
 3.5. cellular respiration

What happens in the anaerobic cellular respiration ?

If there is no oxygen present, the final reaction of oxidative phosphorylation, where electrons
and protons react with oxygen to form water, cannot take place.
As a result, the electron transport chain comes to a halt. No protons are pumped and the
action of ATP synthase also stops.
If the electron transport chain does not function, NAD is not regenerated from reduced NAD,
and FAD is not regenerated from reduced FAD.
The Krebs cycle and the link reaction come to a halt as both NAD and FAD are required in
their oxidized forms for the Krebs cycle to function.
However, glycolysis can continue even though it also requires NAD. This is because the
reduced NAD formed during glycolysis can be regenerated under anaerobic conditions by
converting the pyruvate into another product in a reduction reaction.
Reduced NAD supplies the hydrogen for this reduction and becomes oxidized itself. It is
therefore regenerated and can be used again in glycolysis.
170
 3.5. cellular respiration
What happens in the anaerobic cellular respiration ?

171
Figure 5.21 How NAD is regenerated in fermentation
 3.5. cellular respiration
What happens in the anaerobic cellular respiration ?
Different organisms produce different fermentation end products:
Animal cells produce lactate (lactic acid) when they ferment glucose.
Yeast cells produce ethanol (ethyl alcohol).
But both only produce two molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose.

172
 3.5. cellular respiration
What happens in the anaerobic cellular respiration ?
Other organisms produce other fermentation products, many of which are made use of in
different industries. Below figure shows some of these.

173
 3.5. cellular respiration
summary of aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration ?

174
 3.5. cellular respiration
summary of aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration ?

175
 What substances can be used as energy sources?
In addition to the respiration and fermentation of glucose, lipids, and proteins can also
be used as respiratory substrates.

Lipids and proteins are converted into substances that can enter the aerobic respiration
pathway at some point.

Figure 5.28 shows how lipids and proteins are converted into substances that can enter
the aerobic respiration pathway at some point.

The metabolism of proteins, lipids and carbohydrates ‘converges’ on the Krebs cycle

176
 What substances can be used as energy sources?

Figure 5.28 The metabolic pathways by which carbohydrates, lipids and proteins are respired 177
 Unit 4: Microorganisms (10 hrs.)
This unit possesses the following main contents:

Introduction to microorganisms
Beneficial microorganisms
 Pathogenic microorganisms

178
 4.1. Introduction to microorganisms
Micro-organism is a very small organism.
Most micro-organisms are unicellular (the whole organism consists of just one cell),
although some do contain more than one cell.

There are five main groups of micro-organisms, although each group can be subdivided.
These groups are:

• Protozoa
• Some fungi
• Some algae
• Bacteria
• Viruses 179
 4.1. Introduction to microorganisms
Protozoa
Protozoa are unicellular organisms that lack a cell wall.

Most of them are motile (able to move), and include organisms such as Amoeba, Plasmodium
(the organism that causes malaria), and Paramecium.

Figure 1.1 Some protozoa. (a) Amoeba; (b) Plasmodium in blood cells; (c) Paramecium 180
 4.1. Introduction to microorganisms
Fungi
Fungus (plural fungi) a eukaryotic organism that obtains its nutrition using extracellular
digestion. A fungus is neither a plant nor an animal
The only unicellular fungi are the yeasts. These include brewer’s yeast and baker’s yeast
(Saccharomyces) as well as the yeast-like organism that causes thrush in humans (Candida).

181
Figure 1.2 Some yeasts. (a) Saccharomyces; (b) Candida
 4.1. Introduction to microorganisms
Fungi
Although the yeasts are the only unicellular fungi, other fungi are also classed as micro-
organisms.
Many fungi produce a mycelium of microscopic strands called hyphae. They release enzymes
from these strands that digest whatever the fungus is growing on.
The products of digestion are then absorbed into the fungus to help with its growth and
reproduction. Remember, fungi do not have true roots, stems and leaves.
Some fungi live on or in living organisms, as parasites. Others live on dead material as
saprobionts, organisms that digest their food externally and absorb the products.

182
Figure 1.3 Fungal hyphae
 4.1. Introduction to microorganisms
Algae
Algae are an important group of organisms. Many are large (the seaweeds are all algae), but
some algae are unicellular.
The unicellular algae are part of the plankton, the collections of small microscopic plant and
animal organisms that float or drift in large numbers in fresh or salt water, providing food for
fish and other larger organisms.
These unicellular algae in the oceans produce far more oxygen during photosynthesis than all
the forests in the world together.

183
Figure 1.4 Unicellular algae are found in the ocean as plankton.
 4.1. Introduction to microorganisms
Algae
Some unicellular algae are motile – they can move. Figure 1.5 shows an alga called
Chlamydomonas, which has two flagella at one end to propel it through the water.

184
Figure 1.5 Chlamydomonas moves using its two flagella.
 4.1. Introduction to microorganisms
Virus
Viruses are sometimes referred to as micro-organisms, although some biologists say that,
strictly, they are not organisms at all.
Viruses cannot independently carry out any of the processes common to all living organisms.
They can only reproduce inside other cells.
So they are all parasites. Some parasitize bacteria, some parasitize plants and others parasitize
animals.
The basic virus is not even a cell – it has no nucleus and no cytoplasm – but it does have genetic
material surrounded by a protein coat.

Figure 1.6 Some viruses. A Bacteriophages are viruses that parasitize bacteria; B Tobacco 185
 4.1. Introduction to microorganisms
Bacteria
Bacterium (plural bacteria) a micro-organism consisting of just one prokaryotic cell
In prokaryotic cells there is no true nucleus separated from the rest of the cell by a membrane.
Instead, the DNA of the bacterium forms a continuous loop that is intermingled with the
cytoplasm
All bacteria do have a cell wall made from a substance called peptidoglycan (which makes it
rigid), a cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes and DNA.
Few bacteria have a capsule and a flagellum
Although bacterial cells vary a great deal in size, they are usually much smaller than eukaryotic
cells.
Bacterial cells are usually between 1 and 10 µm long, whereas eukaryotic cells are between 10
and 100 µm long.

186
 4.1. Introduction to microorganisms
Bacteria

187
Figure 1.9 The structure of a bacterial cell
 4.1. Introduction to microorganisms
Bacterial shape
 There are several shapes, sizes and arrangements.

Bacterial cells come in three main shapes:

cocci (singular, coccus) – spherical bacteria

bacilli (singular, bacillus) – rod-shaped

bacteria

spirochaetes' – spiral or corkscrew-shaped

bacteria
188
 4.1. Introduction to microorganisms
Classification of Bacteria
Bacteria can be classified in other ways, besides their shape. One of these ways is whether or
not they are coloured by Gram’s stain. This test gives two categories:
1. Gram-positive – these bacteria are stained purple by Gram’s stain
2. Gram-negative – these bacteria are stained pink by Gram’s stain
Because Gram’s stain produces different results with different types of bacteria, it is called a
differential stain.

Figure 1.11 Gram staining 189

 4.1. Introduction to microorganisms
Classification of Bacteria
The difference is due to the structure of the cell wall of the different bacteria.
Gram-negative bacteria have much less peptidoglycan in their cell walls. This is the part of the
wall that absorbs the stain.
They also have a membrane outside the peptidoglycan cell wall, which Gram-positive bacteria
do not have.
This outer membrane secretes endotoxins (a type of toxin that is a structural component of
these bacteria) and is also quite resistant to many antibiotics.
This makes diseases caused by Gram-negative bacteria more difficult to treat.
Gram-negative bacteria, on the whole, cause more serious diseases,
although there are exceptions – the bacterium that causes tuberculosis is a Gram-positive
bacterium.
Gram staining is used much less than it was in diagnosing disease, as more advanced and more
reliable biochemical techniques have become available. 190
 4.2. Beneficial microorganisms
Microorganisms are found in every ecosystem – they are pretty well everywhere around
you – and everywhere inside you as well!

There are ten bacterial cells inside you for every one of your own cells. Most of these
are found in the large intestine.
We almost always presume they are harmful to us. So this is because we read about
how they cause diseases to both plants and animals including humans. But, it is a fact
that microorganisms are useful to us in many ways.

microorganisms are important because they:

Recycle mineral elements such as carbon, nitrogen and sulphur through
ecosystems
Are used in many industrial processes 191
 4.2. Beneficial microorganisms
The role of bacteria in recycling minerals through
ecosystems
Many bacteria are decomposers.
When organisms die, these bacteria break down the complex molecules that are found in
the bodies of the dead organisms into much simpler molecules.
The bacteria use some of these for their own metabolism, but in the process they release
some minerals, in various forms, into the environment.
 Many elements are recycled in this way, including:
carbon
 nitrogen
Sulphur
phosphorus
Here we will look at how nitrogen and Sulphur are recycled.
192
 4.2. Beneficial microorganisms
The role of bacteria in recycling minerals through
ecosystems
The nitrogen cycle
The element nitrogen is found in many important organic molecules in all living organisms.
These include:
proteins
DNA
RNA
ATP and many others
It is important that once organisms die, the nitrogen they contain is made available again to
other organisms.
Several different types of bacteria are involved in this recycling of nitrogen.

193
 4.2. Beneficial microorganisms
The role of bacteria in recycling minerals through
ecosystems
The nitrogen cycle
Table 1.3 The role of bacteria in the nitrogen cycle

194
 4.2. Beneficial microorganisms
The role of bacteria in recycling minerals through
ecosystems
The Sulphur cycle
The Sulphur is found in fewer types of organic molecule than nitrogen, but it is found in many
proteins.
Table 1.4 The role of bacteria in the Sulphur cycle

If the populations of bacteria that are involved in the nitrogen cycle and the Sulphur cycle were
195
reduced, then the cycling of these elements could not occur, and all life would be impossible as
 4.2. Beneficial microorganisms
The role of bacteria in recycling minerals through
ecosystems
The Sulphur cycle
The micro-organisms that recycle carbon, nitrogen, Sulphur and all the other minerals make
them available again and again.

196
 4.2. Beneficial microorganisms
The role of bacteria in in industrial processes
Food and beverage fermentation
Bacteria and other micro-organisms have been used in manufacturing processes for thousands
of years.
They have been used to make:
bread

alcohol

irgo or yoghurt

Vinegar and as well as many other products.

Antibiotics

They have also been used in key processes such as sewage treatment 197
 4.2. Beneficial microorganisms
The role of bacteria in in industrial processes
Production of vinegar
Vinegar is a dilute solution of ethanoic acid in water. It also contains other substances that give
the vinegar its flavour.
Vinegar is used in two main ways:
to flavour foods
to preserve foods
Vinegar is too acidic for most micro-organisms to grow and multiply, so keeping foods in
vinegar is a good way of preserving them. We call this method of preserving food pickling.
Vinegar is produced by fermenting beer, wine or cider for a second time. A culture of a special
bacterium called Acetobacter is used.
The alcohol in the beer, wine or cider is oxidized to ethanoic acid.
This takes place in a special fermenter. The fermenter is filled with wood shavings and the
alcohol source is sprayed in from the top. 198
 4.2. Beneficial microorganisms
The role of bacteria in in industrial processes
Production of vinegar
It trickles down through the wood shavings, which are covered with Acetobacter bacteria. As
the liquid flows past them, the bacteria oxidize the alcohol to ethanoic acid.
Air is blown in at the bottom to supply the oxygen the bacteria need. The vinegar drips out at
the bottom of the wood shavings and is tapped off.

This type of production is called continuous

production, as alcohol is continuously being fed
in and ethanoic acid is continuously dripping out
at the bottom of the fermenter.

199
Figure 1.17 Vinegar production
 4.2. Beneficial microorganisms
The role of bacteria in in industrial processes
Producing antibiotics
The first antibiotics all came from fungi. Today, they are increasingly being made using
genetically modified bacteria in huge fermenters.

Genetically modified bacteria are also used to produce:

Insulin

human growth hormone

 antibiotics

enzymes for washing powders

 human vaccines, such as the vaccine against hepatitis B 200

 4.2. Beneficial microorganisms
The role of bacteria in in industrial processes
How are bacteria genetically modified?
Genetic engineering the practice of transferring genes from one organism to another organism
(either belonging to the same species or belonging to a different species).
This is done by taking DNA from the first organism and transferring it to the second organism.
Genes are sections of the DNA of an organism that code for a particular protein.
So if a gene can be transferred successfully from one organism into a bacterium, the genetically
modified bacterium will now make the protein that its ‘new gene’ codes for.
The development of three main techniques made genetic engineering possible.
The discovery that genes can be ‘cut’ out of a DNA molecule using enzymes called
restriction endonucleases.
The discovery that genes can be inserted (‘tied’) into another DNA molecule using a
ligase enzyme.
Genes can be transferred into other cells using vectors. These are usually either plasmids
201
(small pieces of circular DNA found in bacteria), or viruses.
 4.2. Beneficial microorganisms
The role of bacteria in in industrial processes
How are bacteria genetically modified?
Once the gene has been inserted into the new bacterium, the bacterium becomes a genetically
modified or transgenic organism.

202
 4.2. Beneficial microorganisms
The role of bacteria in in industrial processes
Sewage treatment
 All types of sewage treatment rely on the action of a range of microorganisms to oxidize the
organic matter present in sewage.
 The percolating filter method
 There are two main methods:
 The activated sludge method
In the percolating filter method:
Sewage is screened to remove large pieces of debris. It stands in a large settlement tank to allow
suspended matter to settle out
 It is then allowed to trickle through a bed of stones, each of which is covered in a layer of
micro-organisms (bacteria, fungi and protozoa)
 As the sewage trickles through the filter bed, the microorganisms digest the organic matter and
absorb the products
 By the time the liquid reaches the bottom of the filter bed, the polluting organic matter has all
203
been removed
 4.2. Beneficial microorganisms
The role of bacteria in in industrial processes
Sewage treatment
In the activated sludge method:

sewage is screened and allowed to stand in settlement tanks, as in the percolating filter method

it is then pumped into treatment tanks, where:

 activated sludge, rich in micro-organisms, is added

oxygen is blown through the mixture

in the oxygenated mixture, the micro-organisms from the added activated sludge oxidize the

polluting organic matter, reproducing as they do so

some of the sludge formed is recycled to ‘seed’ new tanks. 204

 4.2. Beneficial microorganisms
The role of bacteria in in industrial processes
Sewage treatment

Figure 1.20 The activated sludge

Figure 1.19 The percolating filter method 205
method
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
The theory that disease can be caused by micro-organisms is called the germ theory.
Organisms that cause disease are called pathogens.
A disease that is caused by a micro-organism infecting the body is an infectious disease.
Koch’s postulates
After considerable work on micro-organisms as the cause of disease, Robert Koch put
forward the following ideas:-
The micro-organism must always be present when the disease is present, and should not be
present if the disease is not present.
The micro-organism can be isolated from an infected person and then grown in culture.
Introducing such cultured micro-organisms into a healthy host should result in the disease
developing.
It should then be possible to isolate the micro-organism from this newly diseased host and
grow it in culture.
206
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
How micro-organisms cause disease
Different micro-organisms cause disease in different ways

207
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
How micro-organisms cause disease

208
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
Transmitting of disease-causing micro-organisms
The origin of micro-organisms that infect other people is called the reservoir of infection.
This is the principal habitat from which an infectious agent may spread to cause disease.
Reservoirs of infection include:
Human beings – the reservoir for many diseases, including the common cold, diphtheria and
others
Other animals – for example: chickens, the reservoir for salmonella infections; mosquito, the
reservoir for malaria
Soil – the reservoir for tetanus and many other pathogens
Water – the reservoir for legionnaire’s disease, amoeba, cholera, etc.
Food – the reservoir for many diseases including typhoid
Contaminated objects – contact infections such as HIV/AIDS and trachoma
Air – the reservoir for pneumonia, tuberculosis, etc.
209
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
Transmitting of disease-causing micro-organisms
Because there are different reservoirs of disease-causing organisms, there are several different
ways in which diseases can be transmitted, as shown in below table

210
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
Transmitting of disease-causing micro-organisms

211
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
Categorizing diseases
 Infectious disease is just one type of disease. Disease can be caused by a number of other
factors.
• Human induced diseases are diseases that arise as a result of a person’s lifestyle Examples
include many cancers, together with some forms of heart disease and fibrosis.
• Degenerative diseases often result from the ageing process during which the affected tissues
deteriorate over time due to simple ‘wear and tear’. Arthritis and atherosclerosis are examples
• Genetic diseases are diseases that result from the action of mutated genes. e.g. Haemophilia
and sickle-cell.
• Deficiency diseases are diseases that result from a lack of a nutrient in our diet. E.g. scurvy
(caused by a lack of vitamin C) and kwashiorkor (caused by a lack of protein).
• Social diseases are conditions that result from social activities and may lead to socially
unacceptable behavior. E.g. alcoholism and drug addiction
• Multifactorial describes a condition that is affected by the interaction of many factors 212
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
Virus infectious diseases
A virus particle (sometimes called a virion) is nothing like either a prokaryotic cell or a
eukaryotic cell.
Viruses are much smaller than even the smallest bacterium.
Most are between 0.01 and 0.1 µm in length or diameter. This makes them at least 1,000 times
smaller than the smallest bacterium and 1,000,000 times smaller than most human cells
The characteristics of viruses are shown in this table

213
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
Virus infectious diseases
Because they do not have the major organelles that are present in living cells, virus
particles can’t carry out any of the normal metabolic processes of cells, such as:
• Respiration All virus contain at least two components:
• a protein shell or capsid
• Protein synthesis • DNA or RNA as the genetic material
Some also have:
• DNA replication • a membrane made from lipids and
proteins outside the capsid
• Photosynthesis • other proteins and enzymes inside
the capsid
• Active transport
• Facilitated diffusion Figure 1.24 The structure of a typical
virus
• Any other process requiring control by enzymes or the presence of proteins 214
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
Virus infectious diseases
• As a result, all viruses are parasites.

• The only way they can reproduce is to

invade cells, ‘hijack’ the normal
metabolic processes of those cells, and
make the cells produce more virus.

• Once produced, the viruses escape from

the cell and infect other cells.

215
Figure 1.25 Stages of virus infection of cells.
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
Classifying viruses
It is difficult to classify viruses because, even though they have a basic structure, there is a great
deal of variation in their shape and the way in which they infect cells.

 However, they can be classified into three main groups, based on the nature of their genetic
material and the way in which it is expressed.

These groups are:

• DNA viruses – for example, Herpes simplex (causes cold sores)

• RNA viruses – for example, H1N1 virus (causes swine flu)
• Retroviruses – for example, HIV (causes AIDS) 216
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
Classifying viruses
DNA viruses
When a DNA virus infects a cell, the viral DNA can replicate itself and can also control the
synthesis of virus proteins, so that the new DNA and new protein can be assembled into new
virus particles.
RNA viruses
When an RNA virus infects a cell, its RNA can be used to synthesize more viral proteins,
including an enzyme that controls the synthesis of more RNA. The new RNA and new proteins
can be assembled into new virus particles
Retroviruses
Retroviruses also contain RNA, but replicate in a different way. When they infect cells, they release
into the cells their RNA and an enzyme that causes it to be ‘reverse-transcribed’ into DNA.
This then controls the formation of more viral protein and RNA that can be assembled into new
217
virus particles.
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
Classifying viruses
Viruses can also be classified by the type of organism they infect:

1. animal-infecting viruses
2. plant-infecting viruses
3. bacteria-infecting viruses –
 these are called bacteriophages
Bacteriophages have a really unusual shape
they look rather like a lunar landing module!
Figure 1.26 Structure of a bacteriophage
218
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
Virus multiplication
Much of our knowledge about
how viruses are reproduced comes
from work on bacteriophages.

One bacteriophage in particular,

called T4, has been studied more
than any other.
 Its reproductive cycle is shown in
figure 1.27.

This type of life cycle is called a

lytic cycle because it causes the
rupture (lysis) of the host cell. Figure 1.27 The reproductive cycle of 219
bacteriophage T4
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
Virus multiplication
Sometimes, instead of causing the cell to burst and release the viruses all at once, a few at a time
are released by exocytosis through the plasma membrane.
This type of life cycle is called a chronic release cycle, because release of new viruses is
ongoing (chronic).
In other cycles, the virus’s DNA becomes incorporated into the DNA of the host cell. Each time
the cell divides, the DNA is replicated, and each daughter cell gets a copy of the cell’s DNA,
which now includes the virus DNA.
This can continue for many generations until some factor in the environment triggers the virus
DNA to start producing virus proteins.
Then whole viruses are assembled, which then leave the cell either by causing cell lysis
(splitting), or by chronic (ongoing) exocytosis from the plasma membrane. This type of life
cycle is called a lysogenic cycle.
220
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
Virus multiplication
These different reproductive strategies are summarized in figure 1.28.

Figure 1.28 Reproductive strategies of viruses: lytic cycle,

chronic release cycle and lysogenic cycle
221
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
HIV AND AIDS
What is HIV like?
Human Immunodeficiency Virus or HIV is one of
the retroviruses.

It has RNA as its genetic material.

This is transcribed to DNA by the enzyme reverse

transcriptase,
 which HIV contains together with the RNA.

222
Figure 1.29 The structure of HIV
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
HIV and AIDS
What is HIV like?
HIV targets cells that form part of the immune system. Its main target is a type of cell called a
CD4 T-lymphocyte.
These cells are also called T-helper cells, because they ‘help’ other cells in the immune system
to mount an immune response to pathogens in the body.
Without this response, pathogenic micro-organisms can multiply in the body and cause disease.
HIV has spikes on its surface, the heads of which are made from the glycoprotein known as
gp120.
This binds with CD4, a protein that protrudes from various types of human cell.
A gp120 sticking out of an HIV virus particle connects with a CD4 sticking out of a cell like an
egg fitting into an egg cup.
Once the virus has attached to a cell, it can go on to the next stage and merge with the host223
cell.
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
HIV and AIDS
What is HIV like?

Figure 1.30 The spikes on the surface of HIV Figure 1.31 HIV infection of CD4
224
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
HIV and AIDS
What is HIV like?
The spikes on the surface of HIV are made from three gp120 glycoprotein molecules attached to
another molecule called gp41.
The shape of these spikes allows them to bind with CD4 receptors on the T-helper cells . Because
they have this particular receptor on their surface, they are called CD4 lymphocytes.

Besides the T-helper cells, there are other types of cell that carry CD4 on their surface – such as
macrophages and some natural killer cells.

 T-helper cells are the most important, though, because they are coordinators of the immune
system. If their activity is impaired, it can have serious effects on the body’s response to
infections by other organisms.
225
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
How does HIV reproduce and cause AIDS?
After HIV has bound to the CD4 receptors on the surface of the T-helper cell, the following
events occur:
1. It fuses with the plasma membrane and then releases its RNA and reverse transcriptase
enzyme into the cell.
2. The reverse transcriptase converts the RNA into DNA using building blocks called
nucleotides, which are provided by the cell.
3. The viral DNA becomes incorporated into the cell’s own DNA.
4. The viral DNA is transcribed to viral RNA, which starts producing viral proteins, including
the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
5. The RNA, proteins and reverse transcriptase molecules are assembled by the cell into new
HIV particles that escape by ‘budding’ from the cell membrane – this is an example of
chronic release.
226
6. The viruses then infect other T-helper cells.
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
How does HIV reproduce and cause AIDS?

Figure 1.32 The reproductive cycle of HIV.

227
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
How does HIV reproduce and cause AIDS?
Some HIV proteins remain on the surface of the infected CD4 cell and are recognized by the
immune system – these cells are destroyed.
The cycle of infection, reproduction and destruction of infected cells repeats itself for as long
as the body can keep replacing the CD4 lymphocytes.
Eventually, the body will not be able to replace these cells, and the number of free viruses in the
blood will increase dramatically – HIV may infect other areas of the body, including the brain.

Because of the drastic reduction in the number of T-helper cells, the immune function is
severely reduced and many opportunistic infections may occur (including pneumonia and
tuberculosis), together with rare cancers like Kaposi’s sarcoma.

The period when the body keeps replacing the CD4 lymphocytes as fast as they are destroyed is
228
called the latency period and can last for many years.
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
How does HIV reproduce and cause AIDS?

Figure 1.33 Changes in blood caused by HIV infection over time 229
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
Can AIDS be treated?
Although there is no cure for AIDS and, as yet, no vaccine to give immunity against infection,
there are a number of drugs called anti-retroviral drugs – that can be effective in slowing down
the progression to AIDS.

These drugs work by blocking the reproduction of the virus in the CD4 lymphocytes.
There are several different drugs that act in different ways at different stages of the cycle of
reproduction.

Because the drugs act on different stages of the HIV life cycle, the most effective treatment is
obtained when they are used together. This is called High Activity Anti-Retroviral Treatment
(HAART).
Although it is effective against HIV, it does have unpleasant side effects. 230
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
What is the social and economic impact of AIDS?
Within families, the infection of family members is often not a subject for discussion.
This is because of:
Shame associated with admitting to being infected
(which is connected with the taboo on speaking about sexuality) This may
Fear of being isolated (or putting the family under pressure) lead for self
suicide
Fear of losing a job, etc.

Many affected families find themselves in a vicious circle:

an increasing amount of money is needed for medical treatment and burials, but the
number of breadwinners is decreasing
The need to deal with the increasing number of orphans leads to more children dropping out of
school to work in the household or in agriculture. 231
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
What is the social and economic impact of AIDS?
Nationally, AIDS has a serious economic impact in two main areas:
Labour supply – the loss of young adults in their most productive years will affect overall
economic output
costs:
Direct costs including expenditure for medical care, drugs and funeral expenses

Indirect costs including lost time due to illness, recruitment and training costs to replace
workers, and for care of orphans

 If costs are financed out of savings, then the reduction in investment could lead to a
significant reduction in economic growth

232
 4.3. Pathogenic microorganisms
Microorganisms causing an infectious diseases
Control the spread of AIDS?
Responsible sexual behavior

• Limiting the number of sexual partners

In terms of AIDS, this is simple mathematics. If we have sex with many people, we
increase our risk of contracting HIV and then passing it on.

• Using condoms
Male circumcision (this reduces the risk of males acquiring the Disease)

Not sharing infected needles

Earlier protection from mother to child. 233

 Unit 5: Genetics (10 hrs.)
This unit possesses the following main contents:

5.1. The Language of Genetics

5.2. Mendelian inheritance

5.3. DNA and chromosome structure

5.4. DNA replication

5.5.Mitosis and meiosis

5.6. Protein synthesis

5.7.Mutations
234
 Unit 5: Genetics (10hrs.)

Like Father, Like Son Heterozygous cross-bred235

 5.1.The Language of Genetics
Today, we know that traits of organisms are controlled by genes on
chromosomes.
To talk about inheritance in terms of genes and chromosomes, you
need to know the language of genetics.
The terms below serve as a good starting point. They are illustrated in the
figure that follows.
• A gene is the part of a chromosome that contains the genetic code for a
given protein.
For example, in pea plants, a given gene might code for flower
colour.
• The position of a given gene on a chromosome is called its locus (plural,
loci).
A gene might be located near the center, or at one end or the other of a
chromosome.
• A given gene may have different normal versions, which are called alleles.
For example, in pea plants, there is a purple-flower allele (B) and a 236
 5.1.The Language of Genetics
• In sexually reproducing organisms, each individual has two copies of each
type of chromosome.
• Paired chromosomes of the same type are called homologous
chromosomes.
• They are about the same size and shape, and they have all the same
genes at the same loci.

237
 5.1.The Language of Genetics
Genotype
When sexual reproduction occurs, sex cells (called gametes) unite
during fertilization to form a single cell called a zygote.
The zygote inherits two of each type of chromosome, with one
chromosome of each type coming from the father, and the other coming
from the mother.
Because homologous chromosomes have the same genes at the
same loci, each individual also inherits two copies of each gene.
The two copies may be the same allele or different alleles.
The alleles an individual inherits for a given gene make up the individual’s
genotype.
As shown in Table 5.11.1, an organism with two of the same allele (for
example, BB or bb) is called a homozygote.
An organism with two different alleles (in this example, Bb) is called a
heterozygote 238
 5.1.The Language of Genetics
Genotype
Table 5.11.1 Allele Combinations Associated With the Terms Homozygous
and Heterozygous

239
 5.1.The Language of Genetics
Phenotype
The expression of an organism’s genotype is referred to as its
phenotype, and it refers to the organism’s traits, such as purple or white
flowers in pea plants.
As you can see from Table 5.11.1, different genotypes may produce the
same phenotype. In this example, both BB and Bb genotypes produce plants
with the same phenotype, purple flowers.
 Why does this happen? In a Bb heterozygote, only the B allele is expressed,
so the b allele doesn’t influence the phenotype.
In general, when only one of two alleles is expressed in the phenotype, the
expressed allele is called dominant, and the allele that isn’t expressed is
called recessive.
The terms dominant and recessive may also be used to refer to
phenotypic traits. For example, purple flower colour in pea plants is a
dominant trait.
It shows up in the phenotype whenever a plant inherits even one dominant240
allele for the trait.
 5.2.Mendelian inheritance
The ‘father’ of genetics, the man who discovered the rules by which genes
are inherited, was the Austrian monk Gregor Mendel.
Living and experimenting in a monastery in Brno, Mendel experimented with
pea plants and was able to deduce the rules of inheritance from his results.
He noticed that pea plants exhibited ‘contrasting characteristics’. For
example, the plants were either tall or short, had purple flowers or white
flowers.

Figure 3.4 The

contrasting
characteristics of pea
plants used by Mendel in
his experiments

241
 5.2.Mendelian inheritance

How did he do it?

He cross-bred two pea plants with contrasting features – for example,
plants with purple flowers and plants with white flowers.
Before he carried out any breeding experiments, he self-pollinated
the plants for several generations, and eventually used plants
from a ‘breeding line’ that had contained only purple-flowered
plants or white-flowered plants.
These he called ‘true-breeding’ plants.
He then cross-bred them in the following way (figure 3.5).
We will use flower color as our example, but he used the same
procedure for all the contrasting characteristics.
Mendel also carried out reciprocal crosses. In this case he also
pollinated white-flowered plants with pollen from purple-flowered 242
 5.2.Mendelian inheritance
How did he do it?

Figure 3.5 Mendel’s technique Figure 3.5 Mendel’s

technique
243
 5.2.Mendelian inheritance
In the above cross, all the offspring (which we call the F1 or first
filial generation) have purple flowers.
Mendel then allowed these purple-flowered plants to self-pollinate
themselves.
In the next generation (the F2 or second filial generation) he found
a ratio of very nearly three purple-flowered plants for every one white
flowered plant. This pattern repeated itself in all of his experiments.
In each case he:
Crossed pure-breeding plants with contrasting characteristics
 Found that only one of the characteristics appeared in the F1
generation (always the same one – always purple flowers, for
example, never white), and
 Found a ratio of 3:1 in the F2 generation (always 3 of the one that
had appeared in the F1 and 1 of the one that hadn’t). 244
 5.2.Mendelian inheritance
It was this pattern that led Mendel to formulate his laws and to coin
the terms dominant and recessive.

He used the term dominant to describe the allele that determined the
trait that appeared in the F1 and the term recessive to describe the
allele that determined the trait that did not appear in the F1.

Trait a feature of an organism determined by its genes

Dominant allele a dominant allele is the allele expressed in a

heterozygous organism
Recessive allele a recessive allele is only expressed in a
homozygous organism 245
5.2.Mendelian inheritance

Figure 3.6 The genetic

basis of Mendel’s results
from crosses between
purple-flowered pea
plants and white-
flowered pea plants

246
 5.2.Mendelian inheritance
Mendel developed principles of inheritance by experimenting with pea plant breeding. Those
are;
1. Every trait is controlled by two ‘heritable factors’ – these are what we now call genes. The
heritable factors (genes) may take different forms (alleles).
2. Principle of Dominance.
When one trait masks or suppressed another trait in heterozygous individual.
3. Principle of segregation.
 The inherited factors (now called alleles) that determine traits are separated before crossing.

4. Principle of independent assortment.

 Genes located on different chromosomes will be inherited independently of each other.
They caries traits independently (not mixed to each other).

5. The only physical link between the generations is the gametes or sex cells. These must pass
the genes from one generation to the next.
247
 5.3.DNA and chromosome structure
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
DNA is the molecule that holds the genetic information.
DNA comes in the form of a long, linear molecule referred to as a strand.
 Each strand of DNA bonded to a second strand of DNA to form a DNA double helix.
 Eukaryotes DNA founds in the nucleus as a double helix.
 DNA molecule replicate during cell division and contains genes.
DNA-is made up of two strands of polynucleotides joined together & twisted into a double
helix
The strands of DNA are anti-parallel to each other.
The basic unit of DNA strand is a nucleotide (monomers of DNA).
Nucleotide contains, phosphates, a pentose sugar (deoxyribose in DNA and ribose sugar in
RNA) and nitrogen base. 248
 5.3.DNA and chromosome structure
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
Based on nitrogen base type, there are four types of nucleotides:-
 Adenine (A) – containing nucleotide
Guanine (G) – containing nucleotide
 Cytosine (C) - containing nucleotide
Thymine (T) – containing nucleotide (in DNA) or Uracil (U)-containing nucleotide (in RNA).

The nucleotides in one strand are paired with the nucleotides in the other strand according to the
base pairing- rule.
 Adenine – Thymine(uracil in RNA)
 Cytosine – Guanine

DNA is a very stable molecule at normal temperature.

 The stability of the DNA molecule is important in ensuring the genetic code does not become
corrupted.
249
The hydrogen bonds hold the two strands together in position through the bases.
 5.3.DNA and chromosome structure
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

Figure 3.35 The structure of a

nucleotide 250
Figure 3.34 The structure of a DNA
 5.3.DNA and chromosome structure
Chromosome
Chromosome is a thread- like structure.
Made from:
 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and
histone (a set of globular proteins).
DNA stores genetic information whereas histone is the core of a chromosome.
Individual chromosomes are not easily distinguished unless condensed. On condensed
chromosome, genes are inactive while uncondensed or loose organization genes to be active.
When a cell prepares for cell division, the chromatin duplicated themselves and become
condensed. This form of chromosome is visible under light microscope.
Chromosome has two essential elements:
Centromere
Pair of telomeres 251
 5.3.DNA and chromosome structure
Chromosome

Figure 3.33 DNA and histones are combined to form chromatin, which is organized into
chromosomes. 252
 5.4.DNA replication
The ability of DNA to make copy of itself (DNA- replication) is the basis for reproduction and
inheritance.
 DNA molecule replicate, in semi-conservative manner, means that each new DNA molecule
contains one strand from the original (old) DNA and one new DNA strand molecules.
Both new DNA molecules formed are identical to each other and to the original molecule.
 Several Enzymes are involved in this process and the main stages are:
1. DNA helicase enzyme break H-bonds to unwind (open) the helix.
2. DNA polymerase follows the helicase enzyme along each single-stranded region for the
synthesis of a new strand.
3. DNA polymerase assembles nucleotides into new strands alongside each of the template
strands. Each new strands is complementary to its template strand because of base- pairing
rule, A-T, C-G.
4. Two-identical DNA molecules resulted. Each contains one strand from the original (old) and
one newly synthesized. 253
 5.4.DNA replication

Figure 3.36 Semi-conservative replication of DNA 254

 Gene cloning
Gene cloning means making multiple copies of a gene.
There are several ways in which this can be done. The principal methods are divided into two
main categories; these are:
In vivo cloning – the gene is introduced into a cell and is copied as the cell divides

 In vitro cloning – this does not take place in living cells but the DNA is copied many times over
using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
• This process mimics the natural semiconservative replication of DNA in a machine called a
PCR machine.
There are advantages and disadvantages to both methods of gene cloning.
In vitro cloning using the PCR is both quicker and cheaper. Billions of copies of a gene can
be made within a few hours at low cost.

 However, if the gene is to be used by an organism to make a product – for example, by a

bacterium to allow it to make insulin – then in vivo cloning delivers the gene already in the
255
organism.
 Gene cloning
How are organisms cloned?
 The term clone is often applied to whole organisms as well as to genes. A clone
of organisms is a group of organisms produced asexually from one parent.

 The members of the clone are genetically identical to each other and to the
parent organism. Plant cuttings are clones and the thousands of plants
produced from one parent by micropropagation also represent a clone.

 To take a simple ‘stem cutting’, just cut off a region of a stem near to a bud – as
shown in figure 3.37. Remove some of the leaves so that it will not lose too
much water.

 Dip the cut end in some hormone rooting powder and plant the cutting in some
compost. Keep the cutting well watered and within a few weeks it will have
developed its own root system and be an independent plant.

 It will be genetically identical to the parent plant the cutting was taken from. If
256
several are taken from one plant, they will form a clone.
 Gene cloning
How are organisms cloned?
Cloning plants by taking cuttings has been practised for thousands of years. More recently the
technique of micropropagation made it possible to produce a clone of thousands of identical
plants from just one parent plant.
Typically, a small section of the growing point of a shoot is taken and sub-divided. These small
groups of a few hundred cells are placed in test tubes containing a special medium with
hormones that induce root growth.
They are then transferred to another medium containing hormones to induce shoot growth.
When they have grown sufficiently, the small plantlets are transferred to a compost and grown
on. In this way, thousands of identical plants can be produced.
Most of the world’s bananas are now produced by micropropagation. The reason why it is
relatively easy to clone plants is that many more plant cells retain the ability to divide than is
the case in animals.
You cannot just cut off a piece of animal and place it in a special medium and watch it grow!
However, animals have been cloned. The first mammal to be cloned, and still the most famous, 257
was Dolly the sheep
 Gene cloning
How are organisms cloned?
 Dolly’s genetic mother was a type of sheep called ‘Finn-Dorset’.

 Dolly was produced by transferring a diploid nucleus to an egg cell that

had been enucleated (had its nucleus removed).

 Once the nucleus had been successfully transferred, the egg cell was
stimulated to divide by a small electric current.

 When development had reached a stage called a blastocyst, the embryo

was implanted into a surrogate ‘mother’ ewe.

 Seven months later, Dolly was born. She was genetically identical to the
Finn-Dorset ewe (female sheep) from whom the genetic material had
been obtained. Figure 3.38 summarizes these procedures.
258
 5.5.Cell division, Mitosis and Meiosis
Cell division is the process, when a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells.
 In eukaryotes, there are two distinct types of cell division:

1. Mitosis; produce two genetically identical daughter cell to the parent.

 Used for growth, asexual reproduction, maintain damaged body (repair) and to replace
worn-out cells.
2. Meiosis; produce four haploid non-identical gametes (daughter cell).
 Used for sexual reproduction

 Prokaryotes (bacteria) undergo a vegetative (asexual reproduction) cell division known as

binary fission.
Binary fission segregated cells into two equal daughter cells.

Before division, genomic information that stored in chromosomes must be replicated.

The duplicated genome must be separated cleanly between cells. 259

5.5. Cell division, Mitosis and Meiosis

Fig: 5.3. Major types of cell division 260

 5.5.1.Mitosis
The process in which the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell divides is called
mitosis.
During mitosis, the two sister chromatids that make up each
chromosome separate from each other and move to opposite poles
of the cell.
This is shown in the figure below.

261
Figure 3.17. Overview of Mitosis
 5.5.1.Mitosis
 Mitosis actually occurs in four phases. The phases are called
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
Prophase
The first and longest phase of mitosis is prophase.
During prophase, chromatin condenses into chromosomes, and the
nuclear envelope breaks down.
 In animal cells, the centrioles near the nucleus begin to separate
and move to opposite poles of the cell.
They help ensure that the new cells that form after cell division
each contain a complete set of chromosomes.
As the centrioles move apart, a spindle starts to form between
them.
The spindle consists of fibres made of microtubules.
262
 5.5.1.Mitosis
Prophase

263
Figure 4.13.5 Mitotic prophase
 5.5.1.Mitosis
Metaphase
 During metaphase, spindle fibres attach to the centromere of
each pair of sister chromatids.
 The sister chromatids line up at the equator (or center) of the
cell.
 The spindle fibres ensure that sister chromatids will separate and go to
different daughter cells when the cell divides.

264
Figure 4.13.7 Metaphase.
 5.5.1.Mitosis
Anaphase
During anaphase, sister chromatids separate and the centromeres divide.
The sister chromatids are pulled apart by the shortening of the spindle
fibres.
This is a little like reeling in a fish by shortening the fishing line.
One sister chromatid moves to one pole of the cell, and the other sister
chromatid moves to the opposite pole.
At the end of anaphase, each pole of the cell has a complete set of
chromosomes.

265
Figure 4.13.7
 5.5.1.Mitosis
Telophase
During telophase, the chromosomes begin to uncoil and form
chromatin.
This prepares the genetic material for directing the metabolic activities of
the new cells.
The spindle also breaks down, and new nuclear envelopes form.

266
Figure 4.13.7
 5.5.1.Mitosis
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis is the final stage of cell division. During cytokinesis, the
cytoplasm splits in two and the cell divides, as shown below.
In animal cells, the plasma membrane of the parent cell pinches inward
along the cell’s equator until two daughter cells form.
Thus, the goal of mitosis and cytokinesis is now complete, because one
parent cell has given rise to two daughter cells.
The daughter cells have the same chromosomes as the parent cell.

267
Figure 4.13.13 Mitotic
 5.5.2.Meiosis
The process that produces haploid gametes is called meiosis. Meiosis is a
type of cell division in which the number of chromosomes is reduced by
half.
It occurs only in certain special cells of an organism. During meiosis,
homologous (paired) chromosomes separate, and four haploid cells
form that have only one chromosome from each pair.

268
Figure 3.17. Overview of Meiosis
 5.5.2.Meiosis
When a cell divides in this manner, there are three key outcomes:
It produces four ‘daughter’ cells
These daughter cells have only half the number of chromosomes of the
original cell; they have one chromosome from each homologous pair
The daughter cells show genetic variation
As you can see in the meiosis diagram, two cell divisions occur during
the overall process, producing a total of four haploid cells from one
parent cell.
The two cell divisions are called meiosis I and meiosis II.
Let us first gain some kind of overview of meiosis, by looking at how just
one pair of homologous chromosomes behaves through the two divisions.
As you can see from figure 3.17, at the start of the process, each
chromosome is a double structure; it is made of two chromatids held
together by a centromere. 269
 5.5.2.Meiosis
Before any division takes place, chromatids from different
chromosomes in the homologous pair undergo ‘crossing over’.
In this process, they exchange sections of DNA. After this has taken
place, meiosis I follows and the two chromosomes that make up the
pair are separated into different cells.
In meiosis II, the two chromatids that make up each chromosome
are separated into separate cells.
Notice that, because of crossing over, none of these chromatids
are the same.
Look at the combinations of alleles on the chromosomes at the start
and at the end.
There is genetic variation in the daughter cells, which also have only
half the original chromosome number – they are said to have the 270
haploid number of chromosomes, unlike the parent cell which had the
 5.5.2.Meiosis
During meiosis, the following things happen to the chromosomes:

• They duplicate; the DNA in each chromosome makes an exact copy of itself and
histones associate with it to make another chromosome.
The original and the copy remain attached by a centromere and are called
not chromosomes but chromatids.
• They ‘condense’; when chromosomes are not involved in cell division, they are
very long and thin and all the genes can be active.
However, they cannot be moved around a cell in this form, so they
become much shorter and fatter.
• The chromosomes of a homologous pair (each one by now duplicated) ‘find’
each other (this is called synapsis and no one is quite sure how it happens) and
form a bivalent.
• Whilst associated in the bivalent, chromatids from different chromosomes
undergo crossing over.
These chromatids are called non-sister chromatids; the chromatids that
make up one chromosome are sister chromatids. 271

 5.5.2.Meiosis
• The chromosomes (or chromatids) are moved around
the cell by fibres that make up a spindle.
• This is achieved by the spindle fibres contracting and
pulling the chromosomes /chromatids. In the two
divisions of meiosis, the chromosomes attach to the
spindles differently so that:
 in meiosis I, whole chromosomes are moved and
the chromosomes that make up a homologous
pair are separated
Figure 3.18 Crossing over  in meiosis II, the chromatids that make up each
chromosome are separated. This is shown in
figure 3.19.
• It is pure chance how bivalents arrange themselves at metaphase
1. With just two bivalents, there are two possible arrangements
and two different sets of gametes.
• With 23 pairs of chromosomes, there are 222different combinations.
Each bivalent aligns itself independently of the others.
Figure 3.19 Independent • This is called independent assortment and is an important source
272
assortment in meiosis of genetic variation in the gametes produced by meiosis.
 5.5.2.Meiosis
The main stages of meiosis
 prophase
Meiosis I: It is divided into four phases:
 metaphase
 anaphase
 telophase

After telophase, the

cell may enter
‘interphase’ for a short
period, or it may
progress straight to
meiosis II.

The actual division

into two cells is called
cytokinesis
273
Figure 3.20 Meiosis I
 5.5.2.Meiosis
The main stages of meiosis
but there are some
Meiosis II. It is divided into the same four phases,
important differences:

• There is no crossing over

in prophase

• The chromosomes line up

side by side in
metaphase

• Chromatids are
separated in anaphase

274
Figure 3.21 Meiosis II
 5.5.3.Meiosis
The main difference Between mitosis and Meiosis.

275
 5.6.Protein synthesis
• The production of proteins is called protein
synthesis, and it actually consists of two processes:-
transcription and translation.
• The DNA code for the protein is rewritten in a
molecule of mRNA; this rewriting of the code is called
transcription.
• The mRNA travels from the nucleus through pores in
the nuclear envelope to the ribosomes.
• Free amino acids are carried from the cytoplasm to
the
ribosomes by molecules of tRNA.
• The ribosome reads the mRNA code and assembles
the amino acids carried by tRNA into a protein; this is
called translation.
Figure 3.45 An
• These two processes are summed up by the central overview of protein276
dogma of molecular biology: DNA → RNA → Protein. synthesis
 5.6. Protein synthesis
How does transcription take place in eukaryotic cells?
• Transcription is the first part of the central dogma of molecular biology:
DNA → RNA.
• During this process, the coded information in the DNA is used to synthesize
a mRNA that will carry the code to the ribosomes.
• mRNA is different from DNA in a number of ways:
• it is a much smaller molecule
• it is single stranded
• the base thymine is replaced by uracil
• the sugar in the nucleotides is ribose, not deoxyribose
• The triplets of bases in mRNA that code for amino acids are called codons.
• The mRNA codons are identical to the DNA triplets that code for specific
amino acids, except that U (uracil) is substituted for T (thymine).
• To form the single-stranded mRNA when transcription takes place, only the
27
antisense strand of DNA is transcribed. This is because the sense strand of
 5.6. Protein synthesis
How does transcription take place in eukaryotic cells?
• However, transcribing this would produce a complementary sequence of
bases, similar to those in the antisense strand.
• In eukaryotic cells, transcription takes place in the following way:
The enzyme DNA-dependent RNA polymerase binds with a section of
DNA next to the gene to be transcribed.
Transcription factors activate the enzyme.
The enzyme begins to ‘unwind’ a section of DNA.
RNA polymerase moves along the antisense strand, using it as a template
for synthesizing the mRNA.
This, therefore, carries the same triplet code as the sense strand (except
that uracil replaces thymine).
• The completed molecule leaves the DNA; the strands of DNA rejoin
and re-coil.
• The mRNA molecule now contains the code for the protein that was held27
in
 5.6. Protein synthesis
How does transcription take place in eukaryotic cells?

Figure 3.48 Transcription in eukaryotic 27

 5.6. Protein synthesis
How does translation take place?
Translation is the second part of the central dogma of
molecular biology: RNA → Protein
Translation of the mRNA code into a protein depends on
the interaction within a ribosome between mRNA and
tRNA.
All tRNA molecules have the same basic structure.
The ‘cloverleaf ’ configuration of the molecule has at
one end a triplet of bases called an anticodon. This
anticodon will be complementary to one of the mRNA
codons.
The other end of the tRNA molecule has an
attachment site for the amino acid that is
specified by the mRNA codon.
28
 5.6. Protein synthesis
How does translation take place?
• The following events take place:
The first two codons of the mRNA enter the ribosome
Transfer RNA molecules (with amino acids attached) that have
complementary anticodons to the first two codons of the mRNA bind
to those codons.
A peptide bond forms between the amino acids carried by these two
tRNA molecules and the dipeptide is transferred to the tRNA in the A
site.
The ribosome moves along the mRNA by one codon, bringing the
third codon into the ribosome; at the same time the ‘free’ tRNA exits
the ribosome and the tRNA with the dipeptide moves into the P site.
A tRNA with a complementary anticodon binds with the third
28
codon, bringing its amino acid into position next to the second amino
 5.6. Protein synthesis
How does translation take place?
The ribosome moves along the mRNA by
one codon, bringing the fourth mRNA
codon into the ribosome, and the whole
process is repeated until a ‘stop’ codon is
in position and translation ceases.
The translation of the mRNA code into a
protein molecule requires energy.
This not come from the hydrolysis of ATP
but from GTP– Guanosine Triphosphate.

28
5.6. Protein synthesis

Figure 3.52 Protein

synthesis in prokaryotic and 283
eukaryotic cells
 5.6. Protein synthesis
What becomes of the proteins that are synthesized?
Table 3.2 Some of the proteins our body synthesizes

28
 5.6. Protein synthesis
Transamination
• To synthesize these proteins continually, our bodies require a constant
supply of amino acids. These we obtain from the protein in the foods we eat.
• Some of these can be made in our bodies by a process called
transamination. In this process, the amino group of an amino acid is
removed and transferred to a keto acid.
• The keto acid then becomes a different amino acid and what was the amino
acid becomes a keto acid. Figure 3.53 illustrates this.
 Not all amino acids can be produced by transamination.
 There are some that we just have to obtain from our food.
 These amino acids are called essential amino acids

28
Figure 3.53 Transamination
 5.6.1.Genetic code
Each amino acid in the protein is coded by a triplet /sequence of three bases/. Hence, a gene is a
sequence of base triplets in the DNA molecule.
1.There are 4 bases, therefore there are possible triplet codes/amino acids.
 Only 20 amino acids used to make all different proteins.

2. DNA is a double strand, but only one strand serve as a template for transcription at a given time,
this template strand is called the non coding strand. The non template strand is referred to as the
coding strand because it sequence is the same of the new RNA molecule.
3. Most amino acids have more than one code. only methionine and tryptophan have one code.
Arginine has six codes

4. Three triplets (UAA, UAG, and UGA) do not code for amino acids and they are called stop codons.
Stop codes signify the end of the coding sequence.

5. The genetic code is Degenerate code, extra capacity in genetic code, over and above what is essential
6. The DNA code is non- overlapping codes. i.e., each triplet is distinct from all other triplets.
7. The genetic code is also a universal code. i.e. the triplet code TAT in the DNA code for amino acid
tyrosine in human, redwood tree, bacterium or in any organism E.g. ACC – threonine, GGG-glycine.
286
5.6.1.Genetic code

287
Fig:5.6. Genetic code
 5.7. Mutations
• A mutation is any spontaneous change in the genetic material of an
organism.
• There can be large structural changes involving whole chromosomes or
parts of chromosomes, or changes that involve only a single base.
• The changes involving only a single base are called point mutations.
• There are several types of point mutation, in which one of the bases in the
DNA sequence of a gene is altered.
• The different point mutations are:
• substitution
• addition
• deletions
• These mutations occur quite randomly when DNA is replicating and each
involves a change to just one base,
• but the change to the gene can be dramatic and the result can be that the
protein the gene should code for is not made at all or a different protein 288
is
made.
 5.7. Mutations
Substitution
• In substitution mutations, one base is replaced by a different base

• As shown above Guanine replaces thymine in this substitution. The triplet ATT has been
changed to ATG (no other triplet is affected).
• The original triplet, ATT, codes for the amino acid isoleucine. However, the new triplet, ATG,
codes for methionine.
• As a result, a different protein will be synthesised, which may or may not be significantly
different from the original. One different amino acid in a protein does not always make a
functional change.
• If the substitution had been by any base other than guanine, because the DNA code is
degenerate, (see figures of genetic code diagram) the triplet would still have coded for 289
isoleucine and the same protein would have been synthesised.
 5.7. Mutations
Substitution
• Other substitutions can result in a ‘stop’ triplet, as shown in figure 3.57. In
this case transcription ceases when it reaches the stop code and a non-
functional mRNA results

• Other substitutions can result in causes of sickle-cell anemia

290
 5.7. Mutations
Addition and deletion (Frameshift)
• In a deletion mutation a base is ‘missed out’ during replication, whilst in additions, an extra
base is added.
• Both these are more significant mutations than substitutions.
• Substitutions affect just one triplet and, because the DNA code is degenerate, may well have no
overall effect – the same protein may still be produced. This can never be the case with
additions and deletions.
• There is one fewer or one extra base, the whole sequence after the point of the mutation is
altered.
• There has been a frameshift and these are frameshift mutations.
• A totally different mRNA is produced and a non-functional protein or no protein at all.
• Sometimes, a whole triplet is missed out or inserted. This will result in either one extra or one
fewer codon in the mRNA.
• In turn, this will lead to one extra or one fewer amino acid in the polypeptide chain 291
 5.7. Mutations
Addition and deletion (Frameshift)

292
 5.7. Mutations
Addition and deletion (Frameshift)

293
 5.7. Mutations

The Effects of Point Mutations

Type Description Example Effect

mutated codon codes for the

Silent CAA (glutamine) → CAG (glutamine) none
same amino acid

Missens mutated codon codes for a

CAA (glutamine) → CCA (proline) variable
e different amino acid

Nonsens mutated codon is a premature CAA (glutamine) → UAA (stop)

serious
e stop codon usually

294
 5.7. Mutations
Chromosomal mutations
• Chromosome mutations occur when there is any change in the
arrangement or structure of the chromosomes.
• They occur most often during meiosis at crossing over in prophase 1.
• There are several different mutation types that result in a change in the
structure of a chromosome.
• They are much bigger events than point mutations and usually result in the
death of a cell.
• They may also affect the whole organism.
• For example, if essential parts of the DNA are affected by chromosomal
mutations, a foetus may be aborted.

295
 5.7. Mutations
Inversion Chromosomal mutations
This occurs when an area of DNA on a chromosome
reverses its orientation on the chromosome.
Just one inversion on chromosome 16 can cause leukemia.

Deletion
With this cause of mutation, a decrease in the number of
genes occurs due to the deletion of a large section of a
chromosome.
Deletion can result in a variety of genetic disorders, such
as Prader-Willi syndrome.
This results from a malfunction of the hypothalamus,
which plays a crucial role in many bodily functions.
296
 5.7. Mutations
Chromosomal mutations
Insertion
This type of mutation describes an increase in the number of genes
caused when an unequal crossover happens during meiosis.

The chromosome may become abnormally long or short and stop

functioning as a result.
Duplications
When genes are duplicated it results in them being displayed twice on
a single chromosome.
This is usually harmless as the chromosome still has all its genes.

However, duplication of the whole chromosome is more serious.

Having three copies of chromosome 16, known as trisomy 16, leads

to babies being born with a range of medical issues. 297
 5.7. Mutations
Chromosomal mutations
Chromosome non-disjunction
When homologous chromosomes do not separate successfully to opposite poles
during meiosis, the result is one of the gametes lacking a chromosome and the
other having an extra chromosome.

If this happens with chromosome 21, Down’s syndrome results.

Those with the condition will have 47 chromosomes in every cell (because they
have three copies of chromosome 21) as opposed to 46 like normal.

Down’s syndrome is characterized by mental retardation, heart defects and

stunted growth. 298
 5.7. Mutations
Chromosomal mutations
Translocations
A piece of one chromosome is transferred to another
non-homologous chromosome.

This type of chromosome mutation is often responsible

for chronic myelogenous leukemia.

299
 5.7. Mutations
Causes of Mutations
Mutations have many possible
causes.
Some mutations seem to happen
spontaneously, without any outside
influence.
They occur when errors are made
during DNA replication or during the
transcription phase of protein
synthesis.
 Other mutations are caused by
environmental factors.
Anything in the environment that
can cause a mutation is known as a
mutagen. Figure 5.8.2 Examples of 300
 5.7. Mutations
Consequence of gene-mutations

Mutations on body cell (non- sex cell) cannot be inherited but may result the following:
Harmless Kill the cell
Make cell cancerous Damage the cell
Mutations in different genes will obviously produce different effects.

Two types of gene are important in regulating cell division and mutation to prevent tumor
formation.
A. Proto-oncogenes; when proto-oncogenes mutate, they become active and stimulate cell to
divide in an uncontrolled manner.
B. Tumor-suppressor genes; recognize this uncontrolled cell division and act to suppress cell
division.
 If these genes mutate and become inactive, a tumor will form as uncontrolled cell division.

Tumor-is a mass of cells created when cell replication gets out of control and cause cancer.
301
 5.7. Mutations
Consequence of gene-mutations

302
 Unit 6: evolution (5hrs.)
This unit possesses the following main contents:

6.1. Theories of origin of life

6.2. Theories of mechanisms of evolution

6.3. Speciation through natural selection

6.4. Modern theories of evolution

303
 6.1. Theories of origin of life
 The mystery of life's origin is still a big debating issue in science. b/c it
 “what is life?”
rise a lot of questions. The questions
 Why it is?

 Why a specific material is an

organism and not something else?
 To answer those why (Wh) question we need to understand how life
might have originated. There are a number of theories about the origin
of life.

There are five main theories of the origin of life on Earth:

• special creationism
• spontaneous generation
• eternity of life 304
• cosmozoan theory
 6.1.Theories on Origin of life
1. Theory of Special Creation: according to this theory, all the different forms of
life that occur today on planet earth have been created by God, the almighty.
2. Theory of Spontaneous Generation: this theory assumed that living
organisms could arise suddenly and spontaneously from any kind of non-
living matter.
 One of the firm believers in spontaneous generation was Aristotle, the Greek
philosopher (384-322 BC).
3. Theory of eternity of life there is no beginning and no end to life on Earth and
so it neither needs special creation nor does it need to be generated from non-
living matter.
 Supporters of this theory believe that life is an inherent property of the
Universe and has always existed – as has the Universe.

305
 6.1. Theories on Origin of life
4.Cosmozoic Theory (Theory of Panspermia):
 According to this theory, life has reached this planet Earth from other heavenly
bodies such as meteorites, in the form of highly resistance spores of some
organisms.
 This idea was proposed by Richter in 1865 and supported by Arrhenius (1908)
and other contemporary scientists.
 The theory did not gain any support and lacks evidence, hence it was discarded.
5. Theory of biochemical Evolution:
 This theory is also known as Materialistic Theory or Physico-chemical
Theory.
 According this theory, Origin of life on earth is the result of a slow and gradual
process of chemical evolution that probably occurred about 3.8 billion years ago.
 This theory was proposed independently by two scientists - A. Oparin, a Russian
scientist in 1924 and J. Haldane, an English scientist, in 1929. 306
 6.2. Theories of mechanisms of evolution
 In section 1 we arrived at a definition of evolution as:
The change in genetic composition of a population over successive generations,
which may be caused by meiosis, hybridization, natural selection or mutation.
This leads to a sequence of events by which the population diverges from other
populations of the same species and may lead to the origin of a new species.
 But how does it happen? What drives the population to become a new species?
Over time there have been many theories that have attempted to explain this. In
this section we shall look at some of them.
 At the start of the nineteenth century, Lamarck, described a two-part mechanism
by which change was gradually introduced into the species and passed down
through generations.
 His theory is called the ‘theory of transformation’ or, more usually, simply
‘Lamarckism’.
 The two parts of his theory are:
• Use and disuse, and
307
• Inheritance of acquired traits
 6.2. Theories of mechanisms of evolution

Use and disuse

• Lamarck suggests that by continually using a
structure or process, that structure or process will
become enlarged or more developed.
• Conversely, any structure or process that is not used
or is little used will become reduced in size or less
developed.
• The classic example he used to explain the concept of
use and disuse is the elongated neck of the giraffe.
• According to Lamarck, a given giraffe could, over a
lifetime of straining to reach high branches, develop
an elongated neck. However, Lamarck could not
explain how this might happen.
• He talks about a ‘natural tendency towards
perfection’ – but this is not really an explanation.
Figure 4.14 Lamarck’s ideas of use and 308
 6.2. Theories of mechanisms of evolution

Inheritance of acquired traits

• Lamarck believed that traits changed or acquired during an individual’s
lifetime could be passed on to its offspring.
• Giraffes that had acquired long necks would have offspring with long necks
rather than the short necks their parents were born with.
• This type of inheritance, sometimes called Lamarckian inheritance, has
since been disproved by the discoveries of genetics.
• However, Lamarck did believe that evolutionary change takes place
gradually and constantly.
• He studied ancient seashells and noticed that the older they were, the
simpler they appeared.
• From this, he concluded that species started out simple and
consistently moved towards complexity, or, as he termed it, closer to
perfection. These ideas we still retain today
309
 6.2. Theories of mechanisms of evolution

Darwin theory of natural selection

• Some of Darwin’s evidence came from a visit to the Galapagos Islands.
These are a small group of islands in the Pacific Ocean about 600 miles off the
coast of Ecuador in South America.
• Darwin visited five of the Galapagos Islands and made drawings and collected
specimens.
• In particular, Darwin studied the finches found on the different islands
and noted that there were many similarities between them, as well as the
obvious differences.
• He concluded:
• that an ‘ancestral finch’ had colonized the islands from the mainland
and, in the absence of predators, been able to adapt to the different
conditions on the islands and, eventually, evolve into different species.
Some of the finches had, he suggested, evolved into insect eaters, with
pointed beaks.
Others had evolved into seed eaters with beaks capable of crushing the 310
seeds
 6.2. Theories of mechanisms of evolution

Darwin theory of natural selection

 Darwin summarized his observations in two main ideas:
• all species tend to produce more offspring than can possibly survive
• there is variation among the offspring
 From these observations he deduced that:
• There will be a ‘struggle for existence’ between members of a species
(because they over-reproduce, and resources are limited).
• Some members of a species will be better adapted than others to their
environment (because there is variation in the offspring).
 Combining these two deductions, Darwin proposed:
• Those members of a species which are best adapted to their
environment will survive and reproduce in greater numbers than others
less well adapted.
 This is his now-famous theory of natural selection, and can be summarized
in the flow chart below. 311
 6.2. Theories of mechanisms of evolution

Darwin theory of natural selection

Figure 4.17 The different sizes of seeds eaten

by three species of ground finch from the 312
Galapagos Islands
 6.2. Theories of mechanisms of evolution

Darwin theory of natural

selection
About antibiotic resistance – a modern
example of selection in action
Mutations in bacteria can make them
resistant to an antibiotic, for example,
penicillin.
If they are resistant to penicillin, it will have
no effect on their growth and reproduction.
What happens next depends on whether
the bacterial population is exposed to the
antibiotic, or not.
 This is summarized in the flow chart.

313
 6.2. Theories of mechanisms of evolution

Comparison of Lamarck’s theory of use and disuse with Darwin’s theory of

natural selection

314
 6.2. Theories of mechanisms of evolution

What is Neo-Darwinism?
• Neo-Darwinism a revised version of Darwin’s theory of evolution by means
of natural selection.
• This theory, which is now accepted by most biologists, combines Darwin’s
original theory, genetic theory and theories about animal behavior
• Charles Darwin knew very little of genetics.
• However, we can now incorporate our knowledge of genes and gene action
into the theory of natural selection to give a better understanding of what
drives evolution.

• Genes or, more accurately, alleles of genes determine features.

• But when we think about how a population might evolve into a new
species, we need to think not just in terms of the alleles each individual
might carry, but also in terms of all the alleles (of all the genes) present in
the population. 315
 6.3. Speciation through natural selection
What are the different types of natural selection?
 The modern view of natural selection is stated briefly below:
Those members of a species which are best adapted to their environment
will survive and reproduce in greater numbers than others less well adapted.
They will pass on their advantageous alleles to their offspring and, in
successive generations, the frequency of these alleles will increase in their gene
pool.
The advantageous types will, therefore, increase in frequency in
successive generations.
Natural selection is the ‘driving force’ behind evolution.
It is the process that brings about changes (over time) in populations that can,
eventually, lead to different populations of the same species becoming different
species.
Natural selection can eventually lead to speciation (the formation of new
species)
Species is a group of similar organisms with a similar biochemistry, physiology and
evolutionary history that can interbreed to produce offspring that are fertile. 316
 6.3. Speciation through natural selection
What are the different types of natural selection?
 All types of natural selection work in the same manner, but their
influence on a population is different. The different types of selection
include:
• directional selection
• stabilising selection
• disruptive selection

Directional selection
 Individuals at one extreme could have a disadvantage whereas those at the
other extreme have an advantage.
 For example, thicker fur (longer hair) in foxes is an advantage in a cold
climate. Thinner fur in foxes is an advantage in a hot climate.
 If the environment were to change so that it became significantly colder,
or a group of the foxes were to establish a population in a new, colder 317
environment, there would be a selection pressure in favour of the foxes with
 6.3. Speciation through natural selection
What are the different types of natural selection?
stabilising selection

• In a stable environment, individuals at both ends of

the range of values for a feature are the least well
adapted.
• Selection often operates against both these
extremes to reduce the variability in the
population and to make the population more
uniformly adapted.
• Birth mass in humans is an example.
• Babies who are very heavy or very light show a
higher neonatal mortality rate (die more frequently
at, or just after, birth) than those of medium mass.
• Over time selection is operating to reduce the numbers
of heavy and light babies born. 318
 6.3. Speciation through natural selection
What are the different types of natural selection?
Disruptive selection

Disruptive selection is, in effect, the converse of stabilising

selection.
In this instance, individuals at both extremes of a range
have some advantage over those displaying the mean
value.
As a result, the frequency of those individuals at the
extremes of the range will increase over time and those
in the middle of the range will decrease over time.
This is part of the explanation of the evolution of Darwin’s
finches.
A finch with an ‘average’ length beak may not be able to
obtain insects out of cracks in the bark of trees as well as one
with a longer beak.
It may also not be able to crush seeds as well as one with a
shorter, more powerful beak. 319
 6.3. Speciation through natural selection
Natural selection lead to the formation of new species

• Natural selection provides a mechanism by which new populations of a

species can arise.
• But at what point can these populations be considered as distinct species?
We have described a species as:
 A group of similar, interbreeding organisms that produce fertile
offspring.
• If two populations become so different that individuals from different
populations cannot interbreed to produce fertile offspring, then we must
think of them as different species.
• There are a number of ways in which this can occur.
• The two main ways are:
• Allopatric speciation, and
• Sympatric speciation
• Both allopatric and sympatric speciation involve isolating mechanisms320
 6.3. Speciation through natural selection
What is allopatric speciation?

• In allopatric speciation, the species become

isolated by some physical feature. Examples of
this could include:
• a river changing course
• a mountain range being created
• a land mass separating two bodies of
water
• This is a type of geographical isolation.
Interbreeding between the populations becomes
impossible and speciation could result.
• An example of allopatric speciation occurred in the
shrimp population of the Caribbean Sea and
the North Pacific Ocean, which were once
Figure 4.34 Allopatric
joined. speciation in the shrimp
• About 3 million years ago, the isthmus of population of the North Pacific
Ocean and the Caribbean Sea
321
6.3. Speciation through natural selection
What is sympatric speciation?

322
 6.4. Modern theory of Evolution
The evolution of humans

• There is often a lot of very loose language used in describing human

evolution.
• You will hear people say ‘we evolved from monkeys’ or ‘we evolved from
apes’ or ‘we evolved from chimpanzees’. None of these statements are
accurate.
• There has been a ‘line of evolution’ for millions of years that has given rise
to:
 old world monkeys, new world monkeys, the great apes and the
different species of humans that have lived.
• But, we are Homo sapiens and we are the latest of several humans to
live on the planet.
• We have two features in particular that distinguish us from other
primates. These are:
• a very large brain, and
323
• bipedalism – the ability to truly walk on just two legs.
 6.4. Modern theory of Evolution
The evolution of humans

• There were other humans before

us and, before them, what we
might call ‘pre-humans’.
• All humans belong to the genus
Homo.
• Figure 4.41 shows a timeline for
the major hominin and hominid
species according to currently
available fossil evidence.
• Fossils of many of the species
along the early part of the timeline
were found in Ethiopia.
• It is indeed the ‘cradle (origin) of
mankind’.
324
 6.4. Modern theory of Evolution
The evolution of humans

What is significant about Lucy and Ardi?

• Both Lucy and Ardi are important fossils in explaining the evolution of
modern humans and chimpanzees from a common ancestor.
• Lucy was discovered by Donald Johanson and Tom Gray in 1974 at Hadar in
Ethiopia.
• Lucy is a fossil dated at about 3.2 million years. She was an adult female of
about 25 years and belonged to the species Australopithecus afarensis.
• The proportions of her humerus and femur were mid-way between those of
modern humans and chimpanzees.
• Lucy had a brain about the same size as that of a chimpanzee,
• so her discovery was able to settle a debate amongst biologists at the
time – which came first, large brain or bipedalism?
• Clearly bipedalism came before big brains 325
 6.4. Modern theory of Evolution
The evolution of humans
What is significant about Lucy and Ardi?

• Ardi was 1.2 million years older than

Lucy, was also female and belonged to
the species Ardipithecus ramidus.
• One significant feature about Ardi was
that she was also bipedal.
• At 4.4 million years old, Ardi is the
nearest fossil to the ‘common
ancestor’ of humans and
chimpanzees that has so far been
found.
• This find finally proves that: Figure 4.42 A – The original Lucy fossil; B –
 the common ancestor of humans and The Lucy display including reconstructed
chimpanzees could not have resembled parts 326
a chimpanzee, as chimpanzees are not
 Unit 7: Biotechnology (6hrs.)

• This unit possesses the following main contents:

7.1. Scope and definition

7.2. Agricultural biotechnology

7.3. Medical biotechnology

7.4. Industrial biotechnology

7.5. Environmental biotechnology

327
 7.1. Scope and definition

• Biotechnology is the use of micro-organisms to make things that people

want, often involving industrial production.
• Biotechnology has always been extremely important.
• Traditional applications of biotechnology involve brewing beers,
making wines, making bread, and making cheese and yoghurt.
• Modern applications of biotechnology include using genetic
engineering to change crops and animals; producing new medicines; and
helping to provide new energy sources.
• It has enormous significance in helping people to improve and control
their lives.
• Biotechnology is based on microbiology.
• As you know, microbiology is the study of micro-organisms – tiny living
organisms including bacteria, viruses, fungi and protoctista, which are
usually too small to be seen with the naked eye. 328
 7.1. Scope and definition

• Some micro-organisms cause disease; others are enormously useful to

people – for example, they play a vital role in decay and the recycling of
nutrients in the environment.
• With the arrival of new technologies such as genetic engineering, micro-
organisms are becoming more useful all the time.
• Not all types of micro-organism are used in biotechnology. The main groups
are bacteria and fungi, although viruses are being used more and more for
genetic engineering.
• Developing new applications of biotechnology is one of the fastest growing
industries around the world, and is beginning to grow in Ethiopia too.
• People have used micro-organisms to make food and drink almost as far
back as our records go.
• Bacteria are used in the manufacture of irgo (yoghurt) and Ayib
(cheese). Yeast is used to make many traditional Ethiopian fermented 329
foods, including injera, and also to produce alcoholic drinks, such as tej
 7.1. Scope and definition

Traditional technology using yeast

• One of the most useful micro-organisms is yeast.
• When yeasts have plenty of oxygen, they respire aerobically, breaking
down sugar to provide energy for the cells, and producing water and carbon
dioxide as waste products.
• But yeasts are useful because they can also respire anaerobically.
• When yeast cells break down sugar in the absence of oxygen, they produce
ethanol (commonly referred to as alcohol) and carbon dioxide.
• The anaerobic respiration of yeast is sometimes referred to as
fermentation.

330
 7.1. Scope and definition

Traditional technology using yeast

Injera needs yeast
• When you make injera, the mixture of flour and water
needs to be left for at room temperature for about two
days.
• Natural yeasts start to grow and respire in the dough.
At first the yeast respires aerobically, although this
may change to anaerobic respiration.
• The yeast produces carbon dioxide, making the mix
rise a little and giving it a tangy flavour.
• When you cook the mixture, the bubbles of gas
expand in the high temperature, giving injera its
typical texture (holes in the injera).
331
• The yeasts are killed during the cooking process
 7.1. Scope and definition

Traditional technology using yeast

Making alcoholic drinks
• Tej is one of the oldest drinks known to the human race –
it has been known since at least 400 BC.
• When you make tej, you need honey, water and gesho
leaf or gesho stick.
• Gesho gives a bitter edge to the brew, and wild
yeasts found on the plant start the fermentation
going. The yeasts use the honey as a source of food.
• As the yeast colonies grow they start to respire
anaerobically, and this produces ethanol and carbon
dioxide.
• The alcohol content of tej varies from about 6 to 11%.
332
• Tej and tella are the most commonly consumed
 7.1. Scope and definition

Food production using bacteria

Making yoghurt (irgo)
• Yoghurt is formed by the action of bacteria on the lactose (milk sugar) in the
milk.
• To make yoghurt, you add a starter culture of the right kind of bacteria to
warm milk.
• Often this starter culture is just a small amount of yoghurt you have already
made.
• As the bacteria break down the lactose in the milk, they produce lactic
acid, which gives the yoghurt its sharp, tangy taste.
• This is known as lactic fermentation. The lactic acid produced by the
bacteria causes the milk to clot and solidify into yoghurt.
• The action of the bacteria also gives the yoghurt a smooth, thick texture.
• Once the yoghurt forming bacteria have worked on the milk, they also help 333
prevent the growth of other bacteria that normally send the milk bad.
 7.1. Scope and definition

Food production using bacteria

Cheese making
• Cheese making is very successful in preserving milk, and some cheeses
can survive for years without decay.
• Around 900 different types of cheese are made around the world, but the
basis of the production method is the same for them all.
• Just as in yoghurt making, you add a starter culture of bacteria to warm milk.
• The difference is in the type of bacteria added. The bacteria in cheese making
also convert lactose to lactic acid, but they make much more lactic acid
• As a result, the solid part (curds) is much more solid than in yoghurt.
• Enzymes are also added to increase the separation of the milk. These often
come from the stomachs of calves or other young animals.
• When it has completely curdled, you can separate the curds from the liquid
whey (known as aguat here in Ethiopia).
334
 7.1. Scope and definition

Food production using bacteria

Cheese making
• Then you can use the curds for cheese
making. The whey is often used in other
dishes.
• The curds can be used fresh, and can be
seasoned or flavoured. This is the basis of ayib.

• Here in Ethiopia cheese is traditionally made by

first making yoghurt from fresh milk,

extracting the butter by continuous agitation,

and finally boiling the remaining part to make
Figure 1.6 Curds are formed by the action of bacteria on
the cheese. the milk – this is the basis of ayib, although we often add
335
seasoning and flavours before we eat it.
 7.1. Scope and definition

New applications of biotechnology

• Around the world traditional biotechnologies – brewing, winemaking, bread
making and the production of yoghurt and cheese – are extremely
important.
• In many countries they are not only carried out in the home on a small
scale, they also take place in massive industrial production processes.
• Some new applications of biotechnology also take place in an industrial
setting.
• Many advances in agriculture are the result of one of the most important
new areas of biotechnology – genetic engineering (also known as
genetic modification).
• Genetic engineering is used to change an organism and give it new
characteristics which people want to see.
• Genetic material carries the instructions for a new organism, found in the
nucleus of every cell. 336
 7.1. Scope and definition
New applications of biotechnology

• So, for example,

a gene from one of our human cells
can be ‘cut out’ using enzymes, and
transferred to the cell of a bacterium.

• Your gene carries on making a human

protein, even though it is now in a
bacterium.

Figure 1.7 The basic process of genetic 337

 7.2. Agricultural biotechnology

• For many years, we have used selective breeding to change our livestock
and crops.
• We select animals or plants with characteristics we want, such as big grains,
resistance to disease or plenty of milk, and breed from them.
• Gradually, the characteristics change to what we want. But selective
breeding takes time, and there are limitations to it.
• By using genetic engineering, we can introduce new characteristics very
rapidly.
• Engineered genes can be used:
• to improve the growth rates of plants and animals.
• to improve the food value of crops.
• to make crop plants that are resistant to drought and to
disease, and
• to produce plants that make their own pesticide chemicals.
• This means the farmer has to use less insecticide (chemicals that kill 338
insects), which saves money and protects the environment.
 7.2. Agricultural biotechnology

• Much of the research into genetically engineered crops and animals has
been carried out in countries like the UK and the USA.
• The Ethiopian Agricultural Research Institute is using modern biotechnology
to improve teff, coffee, fruit plants and some of our forest trees for
commercial cultivation.
• However, there are some possible problems with the new biotechnologies,
so we must be careful.
• Insects may become pesticide-resistant if they eat a constant diet of
pesticide-forming plants.
• Genes from genetically modified plants and animals might spread into
the wildlife of the countryside, which could make difficulties.
• Genetically modified crops are often not fertile, which means farmers
have to buy new seed each year.
• But if these problems can be overcome, biotechnology offers us the hope of
better crops and more food, both for our own people and to sell
internationally. 339
 7.3. Medical biotechnology

• Biotechnology is extremely important in modern medicine. It is used to

develop vaccines and to create new medicines.
• The first medicine that really relied on microbiology was penicillin. This
antibiotic is one of the best-known medicines in the world, and has
revolutionised medicine in the time since it was first manufactured.
• We are going to look more closely at this story because it shows clearly how
changes in biotechnology make life easier.
• In 1928 Alexander Fleming was extract a chemical from common mould
called Penicillium notatum that inhibit the growth of bacteria, and used it
to treat an infected wound.
• He called his extract penicillin. But it was very hard to extract, and very
unstable once extracted
• Howard Florey and Ernst Chain where used Fleming’s mould and finally
managed to extract enough penicillin to show what it could do.
• They wanted to manufacture it in large amounts, but the yield of drug
was very poor. 340
 7.3. Medical biotechnology

• Fleming’s original mould, Penicillium notatum,

was extremely difficult to grow in large cultures,
yielding only one part penicillin for every million
parts of fermentation broth.
• Then a mould growing on a melon in a
market was found to yield 200 times more
penicillin than the original.
• Modern strains of Penicillium mould give
even higher yields.
• We grow the mould in a sterilized medium,
containing sugar, amino acids, mineral salts
and other nutrients, which is made from
soaking corn in water.
• It is grown in huge 10,000 dm3 fermenters, and
still saves many thousands of lives every year
341
 7.3. Medical biotechnology

• When genetically engineered bacteria are cultured

on a large scale, they can make huge quantities of
protein.
• We now use them to make a number of drugs
and hormones used as medicines.
• These genetically engineered bacteria make:
exactly the protein needed, in exactly the
amounts needed, and in a very pure form.
• For example, people with diabetes need supplies
of the hormone insulin.
• It used to be extracted from the pancreas of pigs
and cattle,
but it wasn’t quite the same as human
insulin, and the supply was quite variable. Figure 1.11 Biotechnology
is making pure human
• Both problems have now been solved by the insulin much more easily
introduction of genetically engineered available to control Diabetes
342
 7.3. Medical biotechnology

Genetically engineered animals

• A number of sheep and other mammals have been engineered to produce
life-saving human proteins in their milk.

• These are much more complex proteins than those produced by bacteria,
and have
• the potential to save many lives.

• For example, genetically modified sheep can make special blood-clotting

proteins in their milk.

• These can be used for people with haemophilia, so they are no longer at
risk from receiving contaminated blood.
343
 7.4. Industrial biotechnology

• The new biotechnology is often used in food processing.

• One of the biggest changes is that enzymes are produced by genetically
engineered bacteria, and the enzymes are then used in the production of
processed foods and drinks.
• Enzymes are used to clarify beer. They are used to break down starch and
convert the sugars into glucose syrup.
• They are used to make meat more tender, and to break down the food used
to make commercial baby food.
• Biotechnology plays a big part in food production. It has even been used to
create a completely new food based on fungi, which has been developed in
the UK.
• It is known as mycoprotein, which means ‘protein from fungus’.
• It is produced using the fungus Fusarium, which grows and reproduces
rapidly on a relatively cheap sugar syrup in large, specialised fermenters
• It is a high protein, low-fat meat substitute used by vegetarians, people who
344
want to reduce the fat in their diet, and people who just want to eat cheap
 7.5. Environmental biotechnology

• Application of Biology in waste treatments and recycling (Bioenergy,

bioremediation, water treatment, bio mining)
• Biotechnological processes are used for wastewater treatment and reuse.
• This area coordinates engineers, biologists, chemists.
• Appropriately designed waste management system can be utilized to
remove hazardous wastes from the environment and for the production of
renewable energy such as bio-fuels and hydrogen.
• Particularly, for preventing environmental pollution through environmental
engineering,
activated sludge process, trickling filters, biotrickling filters, oxidation
ponds, anaerobic treatment, composting units and biogas reactors are
used extensively among the waste treatment technologies.
• Bio-mining is also one area of interest where chemical mining is substituted
by microorganisms that can efficiently extract minerals from natural ores.
• Note that chemical mining generates many pollutants in the environment.
345
 7.5. Environmental biotechnology

Applications of biology in energy production

• Everyone needs fuel of some sort to provide them with energy.
• It might be direct energy such as heat to cook on, or it might be indirect
energy – heat being used to make electricity, for example.
• However, there is only a limited amount of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and
gas for us to use. Even wood and peat are becoming scarce.
• Around the world, we all need other, renewable forms of fuel.
• The generation of biogas from human and animal waste is becoming
increasingly important in both the developing and the developed world.
• This depends on biotechnology.
Biogas is a flammable mixture of gases, formed when bacteria break
down plant material, or the waste products of animals, in anaerobic
conditions
• It is mainly methane, but the composition of the mixture varies depending
on what is put into the generator and which bacteria are present. 346
 7.5. Environmental biotechnology

Applications of biology in energy production

• Many countries are now looking at biogas generators, and experimenting
with using them on a larger scale.
• The waste material we produce from sugar factories, sewage farms and
rubbish tips all has the potential to act as a starting point for the production
of biogas.
• We have some problems to overcome with scaling the process up, but the
early progress looks promising.
• Using ethanol as a fuel is a carbon-neutral activity. This means there is no
overall increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere when you burn ethanol.
• The original plants removed carbon dioxide from the air during
photosynthesis.
• When you burn the ethanol, you simply return it.
• The biggest difficulty with using plant-based fuels for our cars is that it takes
a lot of plant material to produce the ethanol. 347
 Unit 8: Human biology and health (12 hrs.)

• This unit possesses the following main contents:

8.1. Food and nutrition

8.2. Non communicable diseases

8.3. The digestive system

8.4 The respiratory system

8.5. The circulatory system

8.6. The nervous system

8.7. Sense organs

8.8. Endocrine glands

348
8.9. The reproductive system
 8.1. Food and nutrition

What is food?
Food is the source of nutrients and energy for the body.
It usually comes from animals or plants and is taken into the body where it
is broken down to provide the nutrients needed by the body.
Our body use food in three main ways:
1. To provide energy for our cells to carry out all the functions of life.
2. To provide the raw materials for the new biological material needed
in our bodies to grow and also to repair and replace damaged and worn
out cells.
3. To provide the resources needed to fight disease and maintain a
healthy body.
• Some types of food are needed in large amounts – these are known as the
macronutrients. There are six main classes of food needed by the body.
• The main macronutrients are carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
• Other substances are equally important in your diet, but only in tiny 349
amounts. They are known as the micronutrients and they include
 8.1 Food and nutrition

Malnutrition and deficiency disease

• Malnutrition diet is lacking in important elements needed for a healthy
body
I. Under nutrition too little food is eaten
II. Over nutrition too much food is eaten
• Lack of protein in the diet may well be linked to an overall lack of energy
intake, and results in a number of diseases known as protein-energy
malnutrition.
• The best known of these are marasmus and kwashiorkor.
In marasmus, both protein and overall energy intake is far below what
is needed by the body.
In contrast, kwashiorkor is thought to be caused by a lack of protein in
the diet even if the overall energy intake is reasonable.
• Over nutrition of fatty food, particularly saturated fat result in obesity
saturated fats – found particularly in animal products such as dairy
product and meat – can cause problems in our metabolism. 350
They seem to cause raised levels of a lipid called cholesterol in your
 8.1 Food and nutrition

Malnutrition and deficiency disease

• High levels of cholesterol in your blood seem to increase your risk of
getting heart disease or diseased blood vessels.
• The cholesterol builds up in your blood vessels, forming fatty deposits which
can even block the vessels completely.
• Heart disease is one of the main causes of death in countries such as the UK
and USA where people often eat far too much fatty food.
Minerals and vitamins are micronutrients but, their shortage and
over intake result in disease due to malnutrition. Examples:
a. The lack sodium ions- nervous system would not work and the chemistry
of all your cells would be in chaos
b. The over plenty of sodium ions can lead to high blood pressure. This
can damage our heart and kidneys and increase our risk of a stroke
c. Lacks vitamin of A- night blindness.
d. Over plenty of vitamin A- poisoning (if you ate a polar bear’s liver you
351
would die of vitamin A poisoning)
 8.1 Food and nutrition

Malnutrition and deficiency disease

• Deficiency disease any disease caused by a lack of an essential nutrient
Table 3.2 Several of the main vitamins needed in the diet and the deficiency diseases associated with
them

352
 8.1 Food and nutrition

Malnutrition and deficiency disease

Table 3.3 Several of the main minerals needed in the diet and the deficiency diseases associated with
them

353
 8.1 Food and nutrition

Malnutrition and deficiency disease

354
 8.3. The digestive system

The working of your digestive system is based on two

things:
1. The physical (or mechanical) breakdown of the food:
• The food you eat is physically broken down into smaller pieces in two main
ways.
• Your teeth bite and chew the food up in your mouth.
• Then your gut, which is a muscular tube, squeezes the food and physically
breaks it up, while mixing it with various digestive juices to make it easier to
move.
• By breaking the food up in this way, there is a much larger surface area for
the digestive enzymes to work on.

2. The chemical breakdown of the food:

• The large insoluble food molecules must be broken down by hydrolysis
reactions into small, soluble molecules so they can be absorbed into your
body. 355
 8.3. The digestive system

The working of the gut:

• The process by which the food you eat is taken into your body, broken down
and used by your cells, with the indigestible material removed, is very
complex and it involves the various areas of your digestive system or gut

• The first stage is ingestion, or taking foodstuff into your body through the
mouth.
• the beginning of the process of digestion is mastication,
physically breaking down your food and providing a greater surface area
for your digestive enzymes to work on. This can be achieved by our
teeth.
• Because humans have a very varied diet (we are omnivores so we eat
animals and plants) we also have a variety of different types of teeth.
• The incisors and canines are used for biting while the premolars and
molars are used for chewing and crushing food.
• All of our teeth have a similar make-up. The top surface is covered by a layer
356
of non-living enamel, and under this is the living dentine. This is not as
 8.3. The digestive system

The working of the gut:

Figure 3.20 The structure of teeth makes

them very well adapted to their various 357
Figure 3.19 The human digestive
 8.3. The digestive system
Moving the food on

• The breaking down of your food into smaller

pieces by the chewing of your teeth isn’t the
only part of digestion that takes place in your
mouth.
• Your food is also coated in saliva from the
salivary glands. Saliva contains a
carbohydrase enzyme called amylase.
• Swallowing is a reflex action that takes place
when food reaches the back of your throat.
• As you swallow, your epiglottis closes over
the trachea, preventing food going down into
your lungs; you can’t swallow and breathe in
at the same time.
• when your food is swallowed it travels down
the oesophagus or gullet, squeezed alongFigure
by 3.22 The swallowing 358
refle
 8.3. The digestive system
Stomach churning activity

• At the lower end of the oesophagus your food passes through a ring of
muscle called a sphincter into your stomach.

• This sphincter is usually closed except when you are swallowing food, or
being sick.
• The stomach is a muscular bag that produces protease enzymes to digest
protein. The main protease made in the stomach is pepsin.

• The stomach also produces a relatively concentrated solution of

hydrochloric acid. This acid kills most of the bacteria that are taken in with
our food.

• The acid also helps indirectly in the breakdown of the protein in your
food, because pepsin works best in acid conditions.
359
 8.3. The digestive system
Small intestine

• After partly digestion in stomach food is squeezed out of the stomach

through another sphincter into the first part of the small intestine known as
the duodenum.
• As soon as it arrives the food is mixed with two more liquids: bile and
enzymes.

• is a greenish-yellow alkaline liquid that is produced in the liver

• It is made by the liver cells and then stored in the gall bladder until it is
needed.
• The bile does two important jobs:
It neutralizes the acid from the stomach and makes the semi digested food
alkaline.
emulsifies the fats in your food

• The pancreas makes and stores enzymes that digest carbohydrates,

360
proteins and fats.
 8.3. The digestive system
Small intestine

Table 3.5 Enzymes of the human digestive system

Figure 3.25 The liver and pancreas

are important to the successful
digestion of food in the small
intestine 361
 8.3. The digestive system
Small intestine

• Once the food molecules have been digested, giving

glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol, they
are absorbed by your body (absorption).

• They leave the small intestine by diffusion and go

into the blood supply to be carried around the body
to the cells that need them.

• The lining of the small intestine is specially adapted

to allow as much diffusion as possible and as rapidly
as possible.
• It has many finger-like projections of the lining
(called villi) to increase the surface area for
diffusion, and each individual villus in turn is covered
Figure 3.26 structure of
in even smaller projections called microvilli. villi and microvilli
• Assimilation taking in and use of digested food by 362
 8.3. The digestive system
Large intestine

• After the digested food molecules have been absorbed into the blood, a
watery mixture of enzymes, undigested food (mainly cellulose), bile
pigments, dead cells and mucus is left in the small intestine and is moved
along by muscle contractions into the large intestine.

• In this wide, thin-walled tube water is absorbed back into bloodstream by

diffusion.
• At the end of the large intestine the thick paste that remains is known as the
faeces.

• The Digestion ends as the faeces leave the body through the rectum and the
anus as a result of a final set of muscle contractions.

• This removal of the faeces from your body is called egestion. It is not
excretion because excretion involves the removal of the waste products from
363
the cells not from system or organ.
 8.3. The digestive system
Issues of digestive health

Constipation
• If the faeces remain in your large intestine for too long, too much water is
removed from them.
• They become compacted, hard and difficult to evacuate from your body.
• This is constipation and the most common causes are a lack of fibre in the
diet and not drinking enough water.
• Straining to pass faeces can cause haemorrhoids (piles) or a tear in the
anus.

• Constipation can usually be treated relatively easily.

• This may involve:
 eating more fibre (which gives the muscles of the gut more material to
work on),
drinking plenty (so the faeces remain soft) and
sometimes taking laxatives (chemicals which stimulate the gut to contract
364
and force out the faecal material).
 8.3. The digestive system
Issues of digestive health

Diarrhoea
• On the other hand, if an infection causes the gut to contract more
strongly or more rapidly than usual, the faeces that are produced may
be very loose and watery. This is known as diarrhoea.

• If it persists – diarrhoea can be fatal as it causes dehydration of the

tissues.
• It can be treated very simply by:
Giving the sufferer frequent drinks of water with rehydration salts (mainly salt
and sugar).
These replace the fluids that are being lost and keep the body tissues hydrated
until the immune system overcomes the infection.
Food hygiene
• It is not only the balance of food in your diet that can affect your health.
There are a number of food-borne diseases.
365
 8.3 The respiratory system

 The respiratory system supplies your body

with vital oxygen and removes poisonous
carbon dioxide.
Respiratory system contains those
structure with the lung:
1.Nasal passages, which have a large
surface area, a good blood supply, lots
of hairs and a lining that secretes
mucus.
2.Trachea major airway connecting
the larynx with the lungs
3.Bronchus one of two main tubes
branching off the windpipe
4.Bronchioles small air tubes in the
lung
5.Alveoli tiny air sacs in a lung
366
Figure 3.29 The respiratory system
 8.3 The respiratory system

How is air brought into your lungs?

• The movement of air in and out of the
body is known as ventilation of the
lungs.

• The breathing movements are brought

about by two different sets of
muscles:
diaphragm muscle & intercostal
muscles
• We have two sets of intercostal
muscles.

• In normal, quiet breathing we use only

our external intercostal muscles, which
lift our ribs. Figure 3.31 ventilation of the
. lungs
367
 8.3 The respiratory system

The process of gaseous exchange

• Breathing in supplies us with the oxygen we
need for cellular respiration, while when we
breathe out waste carbon dioxide is
removed from the body.
• The process of gaseous exchange is takes
place in alveoli.
• The movement of oxygen into the blood and
carbon dioxide out of the blood takes place at
exactly the same time there is a swap or
exchange between the two and so this process
is known as gaseous exchange.
The mechanism of gas exchange in the alveoli
depends on:
I. Large surface area,
Figure 3.34 The alveoli are
II. Moist surfaces,
the site of very efficient gas
III. Short diffusion distances, and
IV. Rich blood supply maintaining steep exchange in the lungs 368
concentration gradients.
 8.3 The respiratory system

What affects your breathing rate?

• The average resting breathing rate for an adult human being is around 12–
14 breaths per minute.
• This supplies the oxygen needed for all of the normal activities of your cells,
Anything that increases the oxygen requirements of your body will tend to
increase your breathing rate. The main factors known to have an effect
KEY WORDS:
1.Exercise,
on breathing are: 5.Anxiety Tidal volume:- the amount of air
2.Drugs 6.Environmental breathed in
factors
vital capacity:- the maximum amount
3.Altitude 7.Weight of air that can be taken into the lungs
4.Smoking

Effect of smoking on the lungs and the rest of the body

Every cigarette smoked produces around 4000 chemicals that are inhaled into the
lungs.
• Nicotine is the addictive drug found in tobacco smoke.
• Carbon monoxide is a very poisonous gas found in cigarette smoke.
369
• Tar is a sticky black chemical in tobacco smoke and cause lung cancer.
 8.3 The respiratory system

Smoking-related diseases
The most common diseases related with smoking
1. Bronchitis inflammation and infection of the bronchi

2. Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD) reduction of

surface area of the lungs due to breakdown of the alveoli.

3. Lung cancer disease linked to smoking

• The chemicals in tobacco smoke also affect the heart and blood
vessels, making it more likely that blood vessels will become blocked,
causing heart attacks, strokes and thrombosis.

• Tobacco smoke contains tar and other chemicals, which contribute to lung
cancer, bronchitis, emphysema and disease of the heart and blood vessels.
• Smoking tobacco or chewing or inhaling it is not just a matter for each
370
individual.
 8.5 The circulatory system

• Blood circulation system is system of blood vessels transporting blood around

the body via the heart.
• The human transport system is the blood circulation system.
• It has three elements: the pipes (blood vessels), the pump (the heart)
and the medium (the blood).
• We have double circulation systems within the body carrying blood from the
heart to the lungs and back again; and all around the body and back again
Pulmonary circulation blood flows from the heart to the lungs and back
again
Systemic circulation blood is pumped from the heart, all around the body
and back again.

371
 8.5 The circulatory system

The blood vessels

• In the human body we have three main types of blood vessels, which are adapted
to carry out particular functions within the body although they are all carrying the
same blood.
1. Arteries carry blood away from the heart. This is usually oxygenated blood so it
is bright red.
 The only arteries that carry deoxygenated blood are the pulmonary arteries,
which carry the blood away from your heart to your lungs, and the umbilical
artery, which carries blood away from a foetus into the placenta. Arteries have a
pulse.

2. Veins carry blood towards the heart. it is usually deoxygenated blood and so
is a deep purple-red colour.
The only veins that carry oxygenated blood are the pulmonary veins, which
carry oxygenated blood back from your lungs to the left-hand side of your heart,
and the umbilical vein
They do not have a pulse, but they often have valves to prevent the back-flow
372
8.5 The circulatory system

Figure 3.50 This diagram shows

you the main components of the
human circulatory system.

373
 8.5 The circulatory system

The human heart

• The heart is made up of a unique type of muscle known as cardiac muscle, which
can contract and relax more or less continuously without fatiguing.
• The walls of the atria are relatively thin, so they can stretch to contain a lot of
blood. The walls of the ventricles are much thicker, as they have to pump the
blood out through the major blood vessels.
• The muscle walls of the left-hand side of the heart are thicker than on the right. This
is because the left hand side of the heart has to pump oxygenated blood around the
whole body whilst the right-hand side pumps deoxygenated blood only to the lungs.

374
 8.5 The circulatory system

The working of the heart

• Deoxygenated blood, comes into the right atrium of the heart from the
veins of the body.
• The atrium contracts and forces blood into the right ventricle.
• The right ventricle contracts and forces blood out of the heart and into the
lungs where it is oxygenated it picks up oxygen.
• Oxygenated blood returns to the left-hand side of the heart from the lungs
and the left atrium fills up.
• The left atrium contracts forcing blood into the left ventricle.
• The left ventricle contracts forcing oxygenated blood out of the heart and
around the body.
Inside the heart there are many different valves.
Their names describe their appearance – bicuspid (two parts) tricuspid
(three parts) and semilunar (half-moon).
Each time the muscular walls of the heart contract and force blood out,
some of these valves open to allow the blood to flow in the right direction,
and other valves close to make sure that the blood does not flow 375
 8.5 The circulatory system

The working of the heart

1. Diastole the relaxed heart when the blood pressure is lowest
2. Systole the heart as it contracts, when the blood pressure is highest
• A normal blood pressure is 120 mmHg/80 mmHg usually quoted as 120 over
80 or 120/80.

376
 8.5 The circulatory system

The blood
• Blood is a complex mixture of cells and liquid that carries a huge range of
substances around the body.
• It consists of a liquid called the plasma, which carries red blood cells, white
blood cells and platelets.
• Plasma pale yellow liquid component of blood that transports the blood
cells, but also a number of other things.
1) Red blood cells is important to carry and transport oxygen. Haemoglobin
is a very special red pigment used to pick oxygen.
Are made in your bone marrow and once they are mature they lose their nucleus.
This means that there is more room to carry extra haemoglobin – another
adaptation to their all-important function.
 have unique shape- biconcave discs. This is another adaptation to their
function. This shape gives large surface area to volume ratio for the diffusion of
oxygen into and out of the cell.
2) White blood cells are much bigger than the red cells and there are fewer
of them and used to defend against pathogens. 377
3) Platelets are another components of blood helping your blood to clot at
 8.5 The circulatory system

Human blood groups

• A number of special protein called antigens are found on the surface of the red
blood cells. This gives us the different human blood groups.
• There are several different blood grouping systems, but the best known is the ABO
system.
• In this system there are two possible antigens on the red blood cells – antigen A and
antigen B.
• There are also two possible antibodies in the plasma, known as antibody a and
antibody b.
Table 3.7 Antigens and antibodies of different blood groups

Two common problems of the circulatory system

378
1. One common problem of the circulatory system is a condition called anemia.
 8.6. The nervous system

The nervous system is involved in all the most rapid responses. It involves the
passage of electrical impulses around the body.
The nervous system has two main parts.
1. The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of your brain and spinal cord.
2. The peripheral (body) nervous system is made up of the neurons (nerve
cells) and the sensory receptors.
How nervous co-ordination works
• Once a stimulus is picked up by a sensory receptor, the information is passed
along special nerve cells, affector or afferent neurons, to the CNS.
• Once the information has been processed in the CNS, instructions are sent out to
the body along more neurons called effector or efferent neurons. These stimulate
the effector organ, usually muscles or a gland.
Sense organ→afferent neuron →central nervous system → efferent neurons →
muscles

Sensory receptors nerve endings that can sense stimuli, e.g. pressure, pain,
temperature, and start a nerve impulse that sends this information back to the
brain. 379
 8.6 The nervous system

neurons
• Neurons are the basic unit of your nervous system, extremely specialised for the
transmission of electrical impulses.
• They have three main basic parts:
1. Cell body that contains the cell nucleus, mitochondria, and other
organelles.
2. Dendrites tree-like branches from nerve cell bodies that receive signals from
other nerve cells at synapses
3. Axon long process from nerve cell that carries the nerve impulse
• Myelin sheath fatty insulating sheath that grows around many nerves

380
 8.6 The nervous system

• Nerves are bundles of neurons.

• Some carry only effector neurons and are known as effector nerves, some carry
only affector neurons and are known as affector nerves, whilst others carry a
mixture of effector and affector neurons and are called mixed nerves.
• Your nervous system relies on nerve impulses travelling along the neurons.
• Each nerve impulse is a minute electrical event that is the result of charge
differences across the membrane of the axon.
• The wave of positive charge inside the axon when the neuron is stimulated is
known as the action potential.

• Whenever one neuron ends and another begins there is a gap known as a synapse.
• The electrical impulses cross these synapses, but an electrical impulse cannot leap
the gap. So when an impulse arrives at the end of a neuron, chemicals are released.
These chemical transmitters (neurotransmitters) cross the synapse and are picked up by
381
special receptor cells in the end of the next neuron.
 8.6 The nervous system

The central nervous system

• The central nervous system consists of two main regions – the brain and the
spinal cord.
• Your brain is a delicate mass of nervous tissue with the consistency of thick yoghurt.
It is enclosed in membranes and protected by the bones of your skull in a space
known as the cranium.
• The spinal cord runs out from your brain down your body. It is encased and
protected by the vertebrae making up your spine.
• The nerves that run to and from the CNS make up your peripheral nervous system.
• The nerves that come out of the brain are known as the cranial nerves. They go
mainly to structures in your head and neck, like your eyes, tongue and jaws.
• The majority of the nerves come out of the spinal cord and these are known as the
spinal nerves. They go to the arms, the legs and the trunk (the rest of your body).
• The bulk of your brain is made up of grey matter – the cell bodies of neurons and
the synapses that connect them.
• Inside the brain is the white matter – the axons that lead into and out of the 382
brain.
 8.6 The nervous system

The central nervous system

The brain
• Your brain is a very complex structure that carries out an amazing variety of
functions.
• The different areas of the brain carry out very different functions, from the basic
reflexes to the complex ideas needed to create a story or write.
• The fore brain develops into the olfactory lobes, which deal with smell, and
the cerebral hemispheres that are involved in all the higher levels of thought.
Some areas of the cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres) are involved in the
coordination and interpretation of affector input from your sense organs.
Other areas are involved in sending out effector impulses to control the
actions of your body in response to the affector information.
• The mid brain deal with vision (the optic lobes)
• The hind brain deal with balance and orientation (the cerebellum) and the
most fundamental reflexes of life (the medulla).
• Even if all of your higher brain is damaged and destroyed, you may continue to 383
breathe if your medulla is intact.
 8.6 The nervous system

The central nervous system

The Spinal cord
• The spinal cord has a much simpler structure than your brain.
• The grey matter (cell bodies and short relay neurons) are in the middle and
the white matter (axons) are on the outside
• At regular intervals along the spinal cord there are entrance points for affector
nerves bringing information into the CNS and exit points for effector nerves carrying
instructions from the CNS.

384
 8.6 The nervous system

The central nervous system

Reflex action
• A reflex action is a sudden, automatic and uncontrolled response of parts of
the body or the whole body to external stimuli.
• The key point about a reflex action is that the messages do not reach a
conscious area of your brain before instructions are sent out to take action.
• Many reflexes involve the spinal cord while others involve the brain. They
involve three types of neuron – affector neurons, relay neurons and
effector neurons.
• Relay neurons connect the affector and effector neurons directly in the CNS, without
input from other areas.
• The receptors, neurons and effectors involved are referred to as a reflex arc.
• Most reflex actions can be analysed as follows:
• stimulus → receptor → afferent neuron → co-ordinator → efferent neuron →
effector → response
385
• This is very similar to a normal conscious action, except that in a reflex the co-
 8.6 The nervous system

The central nervous system

Reflex action
• If you put your hand down on something hot this analysis would show:
hand on hot plate → temperature and pain receptors in skin → afferent neuron →
relay neuron in spinal cord → efferent neuron → muscles of arm → moving hand
away from hot object
• By missing out the process of conscious thought the whole action is
speeded up.

Figure 3.10 The reflex action 386

 8.6 The nervous system

• The general terms that refers nervous system disorder is mental illness
• Mental illness can be the result of:
• an imbalance of the chemical transmitters in our brain
• the use of illegal drugs, which affect the chemistry of the
brain
Drug abuse is a substance which alters the way in which your mind, or body,
or both, works. Some the most abusing drugs are:
• Cannabis is a plant that contains 400 known chemicals, 60 of which, called the
cannabinoids, are unique to the plant.
• Tetrahydrocannabinoid (THC) is known to affect the brain cells responsible for
memory, emotion and motivation.
• Hallucinogens are drugs that produce vivid waking dreams, where the user sees
or hears things that are not really there, or has a distorted view of the world.
• Illegal drugs but they are not widely used in Ethiopia
• LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) is a very strong hallucinogenic drug made in
the laboratory.
• Cocaine raises your blood pressure, causes your heartbeat to become fast 387 and
irregular and increases your body temperature.
 8.6 The nervous system

Social effects of drug abuse

1. Effects on individuals
• Using drugs reduces your ability to concentrate, to pay attention and to
think logically and clearly; your judgment is impaired, which results in poor
decision making.

2. Effects on family and friends

• Many drug users crave attention and affection, often leading to an
increasingly promiscuous lifestyle. Divorce is often the outcome of continued
drug use.

3. Effects on the community

• People cannot work effectively, families break up – the impact of drug use on
a community can be huge in both economic and personal terms.

388
 8.7. Sense organs

For any nervous system to work there must be sensory receptors that
respond to stimuli
A sensory organ is an organ that contains a large number of sensory
receptor cells

Table 3.1: show the main sense organs of the body and the type of stimulus they
respond to

389
 8.7. Sense organs

The human eye

• Eyes are set in eye sockets in our skull that protect them.
• It has also have eyelids that close over eyes to protect them from the entry of
material like dust, sand and insects, which might injure or irritate them.
• The eyelids also sweep tear solution regularly over the surface of your eye, which
contains enzymes that destroy bacteria that might infect your eye
Some parts of eye and their function
• Sclera the tough, opaque tissue that serves as the eye’s protective outer layer
• Cornea transparent structure over the front of the eye that allows light to enter. A
cornea resembles a contact lens in size and appearance
• Choroid the middle layer filled with blood vessels that nourish the retina
• Pupil a hole in the center of the iris that changes size in response to changes in
light
• Iris a membrane in the eye, responsible for controlling the amount of light reaching
the retina
Lens a flexible disc that helps focus light on the retina
Suspensory ligaments elastic-like structures that suspend the lens and
pull it into shape for focusing distant objects onto the retina 390
 8.7. Sense organs

The human eye

• Ciliary muscles eye muscles that automatically contract or relax the shape
of the lens of the eye to help focus light on the retina
• Retina a light-sensitive tissue lining the inner surface of the eye.
• The light energy that falls on your retina is changed into electrical energy by the
light-sensitive cells known as the rods and cones that make up your retina.
Rods cells in the retina that perceive light and movement and work well in
dim light
Cones cells in the retina that perceive light and movement and only work in
bright light.

391
 8.7. Sense organs

The human eye

Order of observation and light passing in the eye
Light from objective - cornea-pupil - Aqueous humour – lens - vitreous
humour – retina - optic nerve-brain
• The iris control the amount of light by controlling the size of pupil.
• It is made up of muscles that contract or relax to control the size of the
pupil and so to control the amount of light reaching the retina.
• The circular muscles run around the iris, while the radial muscles run across it
like the spokes of a bicycle wheel.

392
 8.7. Sense organs

The human eye

Focusing the light
• If you are going to see clearly, light from an object must be focused on your
retina. For this to happen the light must be bent or refracted. Light rays are
refracted when they pass from one medium to another – for example, from air into
water.
• In your eye, the light coming in is bent (refracted) twice – once as it passes
from the air through the cornea and then again as it passes through the
lens.
• As a result of this refraction the image is focused onto your retina – and it is
also upside down.
• The optical areas of the brain interpret this inverted image so that you are aware of
the world the right way up.

393
 8.7. Sense organs

The human eye

Focusing the light
• Sometimes we look at objects close to us – for example, when we are reading or
studying. At other times we are gazing into the distance, looking at objects a long
way away.
• The light arriving at our eyes in these circumstances is travelling
differently. The light from a distant object reaching our eyes will be travelling in
almost parallel rays, whilst the light from close objects will be spreading out or
diverging very strongly

The cornea bends all of the light entering the eyes towards the retina, but
it is the lens that makes sure that we can see both close and distant objects
equally well.
It does this by changing shape.
Light from distant objects needs little further bending once it has passed
through the cornea, so the lens is stretched long, thin and relatively flat and has
little effect.
However, light from close objects still needs some considerable bending to bring 394
 8.7. Sense organs

The human eye

Focusing the light
These changes in the shape of the lens are brought about by the contraction and
relaxation of the ciliary muscles that surround them,
which in turn pull – or don’t pull – on the suspensory ligaments that hold the lens
in place
Ability of the human eye to focus on objects at different distances is known as
accommodation.

395
 8.7 Sense organs

The human eye

Common eye defects
I. Short sight: A short-sighted person can focus clearly on things that are close to
them but has much more difficulty with objects in the distance, which appear
blurred. The problem can be corrected using concave (diverging) lenses

This may be as a result of a lens that

that is effectively ‘too strong’ – it
is too curved even when the ciliary
muscles are fully relaxed and so the
light from distant objects is focused in
front of the retina, making the image
that actually lands on the retina
spread out again and blurry.

396
 8.7 Sense organs

The human eye

II. Long sight: A person can focus clearly on things that are at a distance but has
much more difficulty with objects close to them, which appear blurred. The
problem can be corrected using convex (converging) lenses.

This may be as a result of a lens

that is effectively ‘too weak’ – it
is too flat even when the ciliary
muscles are fully contracted and
so the light from close objects is
focused behind the retina, so
the image that actually lands on
the retina is spread out and
blurred.

III. Astigmatism: is another fairly common eye defect.

 The shape of the eye is irregular – more egg-shaped than round – so the cornea is
curved asymmetrically and this affects the way light is focused on your retina. 397
 8.7 Sense organs

The ear as a sense organ

 Your ears are specialized organs which enable you to hear sound. They are also
concerned with the balance and position of the body.
 The ear is divided into three regions: the outer ear, middle ear and inner
ear.
1. The pinna, ear canal and the eardrum form the outer ear. The cells lining the
ear canal produce waxy material which traps dust and germs, and lubricates the
eardrum.
2. The middle ear consists three tiny bones called the malleus (hammer), the
incus (anvil) and the stapes (stirrup) because of their shape – are the smallest
bones in your body.
3. The inner ear consists of a cavity filled with a fluid, two sac-like structures called
the sacculus and utriculus, three semicircular canals and a coiled tube called
the cochlea.

398
 8.7 Sense organs

The ear as a sense organ

The mechanism of hearing
• The pinna collects sound waves and directs them to the
eardrum through the ear canal.
• When sound waves hit the eardrum, it vibrates. This
magnifies the vibrations, which are then transmitted
through the ear ossicles (the small bones) to the oval
window.
• The ear ossicles also amplify the vibrations (make them
bigger). The vibrations of the stapes make the
membrane at the oval window vibrate.
• The vibrations of the oval window are transmitted to
the fluid and then spread to the cochlea. Vibrations of
the fluid cause the hair-like sensory cells to move.
399
• These movements in turn cause production of nerve
 8.7 Sense organs

The ear as a sense organ

The senses of balance and movement
• The semicircular canals in your inner ear are
concerned with the detection of motion.
The swellings on each of the semicircular canals
(the ampullae) contain sensory cells attached to
sensory nerve endings.
The sensory cells have hairs which are enclosed
in a core of jelly substance called a cupula

• The utriculus and sacculus are concerned with

your sense of balance and posture.
The inner surfaces of these structures contain
sensory cells with protruding hairs embedded in a
jelly-like substance containing tiny particles of chalk
called otoliths.
400
 8.7 Sense organs

Taste and smell

The sensory receptors of taste are located on the upper surface of the
tongue, and to a lesser extent on the surface of the throat. There are five basic
taste sensations.
• The first four are sweet, sour, bitter and salt. Very recently scientists have
discovered a fifth taste called umami (a very savoury flavour found in foods such
as meat, cheese, broth and mushroom).
The smell receptors are more specialized for detecting vapours coming to
the organism from distant sources by nose .

401
 8.7. Sense organs

The skin as a sense organ

• The Skin is a remarkably complex organ which carries out a number of
important functions in your body.
Some this functions are:
It contains a huge variety of sense organs (touch, temperature,
pressure, pain).
It forms a waterproof layer around your body tissues, which protects
you against the loss of water by evaporation and prevents you gaining
water by osmosis every time you swim in the river or wash.
It protects you from the entry of bacteria and other pathogens.
 It protects you from damage by UV light from the sun.
It is an excretory organ (nitrogenous wastes are lost in your sweat).
402
It is vital in controlling your body temperature.
 8.7. Sense organs
The skin as a sense organ

• Our skin has three main layers:

• The lower layer (hypodermis), contains fatty
tissue which is both an energy store and acts as
an insulation layer, protecting us against heat
loss.

• The middle layer (dermis) contains the

blood vessels, the sweat glands, the
sensory receptors and the hair follicles.
• This layer is closely involved in temperature
control in homeostasis and in our sense of
touch.

• The upper layer(epidermis) is made up of

dead cells.
• These stop water loss and also protect against 403
the entry of pathogens.
 8.8. The endocrine glands

• In addition to nervous system, many processes in the body are co-ordinated by

chemical substances known as hormones.
• Hormones act as chemical messages, produced in one part of the body but
having an effect somewhere entirely different.
• Glands are structures which produce hormones and other useful substances.
• Hormones are produced (secreted) by special endocrine glands found around
the body.
• Many glands in your body are exocrine glands. This means they have a special
tube or duct that carries the secretion from the gland where it is made to the
place where it is needed.
Sweat glands, salivary glands and mammary glands are all examples of
exocrine glands.
• The endocrine glands that produce your hormones have no ducts, so they are
sometimes known as ductless glands.
They secrete hormones directly into your blood, and the chemicals are carried
from the glands all around your body in the bloodstream.
Some of the endocrine glands are the pituitary, pancreas, thyroid, adrenalin,
404
 8.8. The endocrine glands

Figure 3.34 The exocrine gland and Figure 3.35 The endocrine glands and
endocrine glands difference . their location within the body . 405
 8.8. The endocrine glands

• The pituitary gland, found in the brain and about the size of a pea, is
sometimes described as the controller of the endocrine orchestra.
• The hormones made in this tiny gland control the secretion of many other
hormones.
• Because of its position in the brain, it is also involved in co-ordination between the
nervous and hormonal systems of control.
Iodine deficiency and goitre
• The thyroid gland in your neck uses iodine from your diet to produce the
hormone thyroxine.
• Thyroxine is one of the hormones involved in the long-term chemical control of your
body.
• It controls the metabolic rate of your body – how quickly substances are built up
and broken down, how much oxygen your tissues use and how the brain of a
growing child develops.
• If someone has an overactive thyroid that makes too much thyroxine, their
metabolism starts to go very fast – the symptoms include losing a lot of weight, 406
sweating a lot and becoming irritable.
 8.8. The endocrine glands

• If the thyroid doesn’t make enough thyroxine, people feel tired and lack energy.
They may gain weight. Low levels of thyroxine can cause problems in getting
pregnant, miscarriages and still births.
• If small children do not make enough thyroxine, their growth is stunted and they do
not develop normally, and this damage can be permanent.
• They have difficulties in learning. This is called cretinism.
• The most common reason for not making enough thyroxine is a lack of iodine in
the diet.
• Without iodine, the thyroid gland works very hard to try and make enough thyroxine
but it cannot do it.
• The gland will grow and enlarge in an attempt to make the right amount of
thyroxine. This is known as goitre.
• Iodine deficiency disorders such as goitres are very common in Ethiopia.
• Women and children tend to be more affected than men. This may be because
women have big demands on their bodies with pregnancy and breastfeeding, while
children are growing.
407
• The problem is worse in rural areas, particularly in the mountainous regions where
 8.8. The endocrine glands

Insulin, controlling the blood sugar levels and diabetes

mellitus
• The pancreas is a small pink organ found below your stomach. It constantly
monitors your blood glucose concentration and controls it using two hormones
known as insulin and glucagon.

• When your blood glucose concentration rises above the ideal range after you
have eaten a meal, insulin is released. Insulin stimulates your liver to remove
any glucose which is not needed at the time from the blood.
 The soluble glucose is converted to an insoluble carbohydrate called glycogen
and stored in your liver.
 When your blood glucose concentration falls below the ideal range, the
pancreas monitors it and secretes glucagon.
 Glucagon stimulates your liver to break down glycogen, converting it back into
glucose and so releasing stored sugar back into the blood.
 By using these two hormones and the glycogen store in your liver, your 408
 8.8. The endocrine glands

The causes and treatment of diabetes

• When the pancreas does not make enough or any insulin it can result in diabetes.
• Without insulin your blood sugar levels get higher and higher after you eat food.
• Eventually your kidneys produce glucose in your urine. You produce lots of urine
and feel thirsty all the time.
• Without insulin glucose cannot get into the cells of your body, so you lack energy
and feel tired.
• You break down fat and protein to use as fuel instead, so you lose weight.
• There two types of diabetes:
1. Type 1 diabetes appears in children and young people.
• It is inherited and you cannot avoid it.
2. Type 2 diabetes appears later in life and it can be linked to being obese or
possibly very underweight as well.
• Diabetes can be treated by the injection of artificially produced insulin hormones
before meals.
• This injected insulin allows glucose to be taken into your body cells and converted
into glycogen in the liver. This stops the concentration of glucose in your blood from
getting too high. 409
 8.8. The endocrine glands

The causes and treatment of diabetes

Figure 3.40 The treatment of diabetes involves regular blood sugar tests and insulin 410
injections
 8.8. The endocrine glands

The causes and treatment of diabetes

• If you have a mild form of diabetes, managing your diet is enough to keep
you healthy.
• Avoiding carbohydrate-rich foods keeps the blood sugar levels relatively low
so your reduced amount of insulin can cope with them.
• Getting regular exercise also helps your body cope with diabetes.
• However, many people with diabetes need replacement insulin before
meals.
• In recent years bacteria have been developed using genetic engineering
which produce pure human insulin.
• This is now used by the majority of people affected by diabetes.

411
 8.8. The endocrine glands

The adrenal glands produce Adrenaline a hormone that elevates heart and
respiration rates; also called ‘epinephrine. It is produced by your adrenal glands,
which sit on top of your kidneys and it is the hormone of ‘fight or flight’.
If you are stressed, angry, excited or frightened your adrenal glands will secrete lots
of adrenalin.
The main changes produced by adrenalin are:
Increased heart rate, sending more blood carrying food and oxygen to the muscles.
 Increased breathing rate to increase the amount of oxygen coming into the blood
and to get rid of excess carbon dioxide produced.
Stored carbohydrate in the liver is converted into glucose in the blood, and the
muscle cells absorb more glucose for cellular respiration to provide extra energy.
Your pupils dilate, allowing more light into your eyes and making you oversensitive
to movement.
Your body hair stands on end not much use to us, but it makes other animals like
cats look much bigger.
 Increased mental awareness and speed of reaction times.
Blood diverted away from your gut and into your big limb muscles you don’t need
to digest food but you do need a good blood supply to the muscles. 412
 8.8. The endocrine glands

Other hormones
Growth hormones produced by the pituitary gland have a long, slow effect on you
throughout childhood, and then when you reach puberty, the sex hormones are
produced, which lead to long-term physical development and growth.
The gonads
The gonads are the endocrine glands which produce some of the sex hormones.
These are the testes in boys and the ovaries in girls.
The role of the testes
• Puberty in boys usually begins somewhere between the ages of 9 and 15 years old.
• The chemical changes which trigger puberty are unseen, another important
example of hormonal co-ordination and control.
• The pituitary gland in your brain starts to produce increasing amounts of FSH.
• This in turn stimulates the male gonads or testes to begin developing and
producing the male sex hormone testosterone.
• The rising levels of testosterone trigger the many changes which affect the body
during puberty, causing the development of the secondary sexual
characteristics.
413
 8.8. The endocrine glands

Features of Secondary Sexual Characteristics in male

• The whole body undergoes the adolescent growth spurt, so you get taller.
• Pubic hair, body hair and facial hair begin to grow.
• The larynx enlarges so the voice deepens.
• The shoulders and chest broaden as you develop more muscle.
• The testes grow larger, become active and start producing sperm and the
other chemicals necessary to produce semen.

• The penis enlarges and the skin of the penis and the scrotum may darken.
• The brain changes too as you make the transition from boy to man.

• Adolescents become more independent, more questioning and start to look

out beyond their families.
 They can also feel young and insecure, confused or angry for no real reason.
414
 8.8. The endocrine glands

Other hormones
The role of the ovaries
• The female gonads are the ovaries is to produce a relatively small number of large
gametes or ova.
• Ovaries, two walnut-sized organs found low in the abdomen.
• They are closely associated with the uterus and the Fallopian tubes, but are not
actually attached to them.
• Girls often go into puberty slightly earlier than boys, and so between the ages of 8–
14 most girls begin the changes which will take their bodies into sexual maturity.

• Just as in boys, puberty is controlled by hormones from the pituitary gland in the
brain and from the gonads themselves – in this case the ovaries.

• FSH from the brain stimulates the ovaries to become active and start producing the
female sex hormone oestrogen.
• As the levels of oestrogen rise and the body responds, all kinds of changes are
triggered and the female secondary sexual characteristics develop.
415
 8.8. The endocrine glands

Female secondary sexual characteristics develop

• The whole body undergoes the adolescent growth spurt, so you get taller.
• Pubic hair and body hair (under arms) begin to grow.
• The breasts develop.
• External genitalia become larger & the colour of the skin darkens.
• The female pattern of fat deposits on the hips, buttocks and thighs develops.
• The ovaries begin the production of ova and menstruation begins.
• The uterus grows and begins to produce a thickened lining each month in
response to hormones from the ovary.
• The brain changes too as you make the transition from girl to woman.
• Just like boys, as girls become adolescents they become more independent,
more questioning and start to look out beyond their families. They can also
feel young and insecure, confused or angry for no real reason. 416
 8.8. The endocrine glands

The menstrual cycle

• Chemical control by hormones is vital in the female reproductive system.
Hormones control the whole process of menstruation and pregnancy.

• The menstrual cycle is a sequence of events which takes place

approximately every four weeks throughout the fertile life of a woman, from
the age of puberty to around 50 years of age.
• A baby girl has ovaries full of immature ova, but they do nothing until after
puberty. Then, once a month, a surge of the hormone FSH from the pituitary
gland in the brain starts a few of the ova developing.

• FSH also affects the ovary itself which starts making the female hormone
oestrogen.
• This in turn stimulates the uterus to build up a thick, spongy lining with lots
of blood vessels ready to support a pregnancy.
• About 14 days after the ova start ripening, one of them bursts out of its
417
follicle.
 8.8. The endocrine glands

The menstrual cycle

• After ovulation the remains of the follicle forms the corpus luteum (which means
yellow body because it is filled with a yellowish fat) and this secretes a different
hormone (progesterone).

• Progesterone makes sure that for some days the uterus lining stays thick and
spongy and stimulates the growth of more blood vessels, ready to receive a
fertilised ovum.

• If a pregnancy occurs the embryo will immediately get a rich supply of food and
oxygen. But most months the ovum is not fertilised and the woman does not
become pregnant.

• About ten days after ovulation (when no pregnancy has occurred) the ovary reduces
the levels of both oestrogen and progesterone.

• As the chemical messages change again the blood vessels which are supplying the
thick spongy lining of the uterus close down. 418
 8.8. The endocrine glands

The hormones of the menstrual cycle

• There are four main hormones which have an effect on the female reproductive
system and between them control the menstrual cycle and female fertility.
Produced by the pituitary gland in the brain:
1. FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) stimulates the development of a follicle in
the ovary, and within the follicle the egg matures and ripens. FSH also stimulates
the ovaries to produce hormones, particularly oestrogen.
2. LH (luteinising hormone). stimulates the release of the egg from the ovary in
the middle of the menstrual cycle and also affects the ovary so that it produces
another hormone (progesterone) to keep the uterus lining in place.
Produced by the ovaries:
3. Oestrogen stimulates the lining of the uterus to build up in preparation for
pregnancy.

4. Progesterone maintains the thickened lining of the uterus and stimulates the
growth of blood vessels in the lining to prepare for a pregnancy – and if a fertilised
ovum arrives in the uterus, progesterone helps to maintain the pregnancy. 419
 8.8. The endocrine glands

The hormones of the menstrual cycle

420
Figure 3.44 How changes in hormone level influence the events of the menstrual
 8.8. The endocrine glands

Nervous and hormonal systems in co-ordination

Both the nervous system and the hormone system are important for
co-ordination and control.
Nervous system:
Electrical messages travel along neurons.
Chemical messages travel across synapses.
Messages travel fast.
Messages usually have rapid effect.
Usually a short-lived response.
Nerve impulse affects individual cells, e.g. muscle cells.
Hormonal control:
Messages transported slightly more slowly in the blood minutes rather than
milliseconds.
Only chemical messages involved.
Often take longer to have an effect.
Effect often widespread in the body affect any organ or tissue
with the correct receptors. 421

 8.8. The endocrine glands

Table 3.3 Table to show the main hormones produced in the body, the endocrine organ that
produces them and the function in the body

422
 8.9. Reproductive System

• The reproductive system is the human organ system responsible for the
production and fertilization of gametes (sperm or eggs) and, in females, the
carrying of a fetus.
• Both male and female reproductive systems have organs called gonads
that produce gametes.
• A gamete is a haploid cell that combines with another haploid gamete
during fertilization, forming a single diploid cell called a zygote.
• Besides producing gametes, the gonads also produce sex hormones.
• Sex hormones are endocrine hormones that control the development of
sex organs before birth, sexual maturation at puberty, and reproduction
once sexual maturation has occurred.
• Other reproductive system organs have various functions, such as maturing
gametes, delivering gametes to the site of fertilization, and providing an
environment for the development and growth of an offspring.

423
 8.9. Reproductive System

Male Reproductive System

• The two testes (singular, testis) hang between the thighs in a sac of skin called the
scrotum. The testes produce both sperm and testosterone.
• Resting atop each testis is a coiled structure called the epididymis (plural,
epididymes). The function of the epididymes is to mature and store sperm.
• The penis is a tubular organ that contains the urethra and has the ability to stiffen
during sexual arousal. Sperm passes out of the body through the urethra during a
sexual climax (orgasm). This release of sperm is called ejaculation.
• In addition to these organs, the male reproductive system consists of several ducts
and glands that are internal to the body.
• The ducts, which include the vas deferens (also called the ductus deferens),
transport sperm from the epididymis to the urethra.
• The glands, which include the prostate gland and seminal vesicles, produce
fluids that become part of semen.
• Semen is the fluid that carries sperm through the urethra and out of the body. It
contains substances that control pH and provide sperm with nutrients for energy.
424
 8.9. Reproductive System

Female Reproductive System

• The main structures of the female reproductive system are internal to the body and
shown in the following figure.
• They include the paired ovaries, which are small, ovoid structures that produce
ova and secrete estrogen.
• The two oviducts (sometimes called Fallopian tubes or uterine tubes) start near
the ovaries and end at the uterus. Their function is to transport ova from the
ovaries to the uterus. If an egg is fertilized, it usually occurs while it is traveling
through an oviduct.
• The uterus is a pear-shaped muscular organ that functions to carry a fetus until
birth. It can expand greatly to accommodate a growing fetus, and its muscular walls
can contract forcefully during labour to push the baby out of the uterus and into the
vagina.
• The vagina is a tubular tract connecting the uterus to the outside of the body. The
vagina is where sperm are usually deposited during sexual intercourse and
ejaculation.
• The vagina is also called the birth canal because a baby travels through the vagina
425
to leave the body during birth.
 8.9. Reproductive System

The main organs of the female

The main organs of the male reproductive reproductive system lie within the
system abdominal cavity 426
 8.9. Reproductive System

Reproductive organs and their roles in reproduction system

• For human reproduction to be successful the sperm made in the man’s testes must
meet up and join with an ovum released from the woman’s ovary.
• The sperm gets inside the body of the woman during sexual intercourse.
• The erectile tissue in the penis fills with blood so that it becomes erect and can be
placed inside the vagina.
• The sperm move from the testes through the urethra, and semen containing
millions of sperm is released inside the vagina in a process known as
ejaculation.
• The sperm move through the cervix into the uterus. They then make their way
through the uterus and into the Fallopian tubes.
• It is here that the sperm will meet a ripe ovum, if the woman is at the right stage of
her menstrual cycle.
• Out of the millions of sperm which set off, only a few hundred to a few thousand
actually reach the ovum – and only one of those will actually fertilize it.
• Yet in spite of all the difficulties they face, sperm manage to reach the Fallopian 427
tubes only around half an hour after they are released.
 8.9. Reproductive System

Reproductive organs and their roles in reproduction

system
• The ovum which bursts from the follicle at the moment of ovulation has no
way of moving itself.
• The end of the Fallopian tube moves across the surface of the ovary to pick
up the ovum. It is then moved along the tube by the beating of the cilia,
which carry the ovum towards the uterus.
• When a single sperm joins with the ovum this is the moment of
fertilization, which in humans is also known as conception.
• The nucleus from the sperm, containing the chromosomes from the father,
fuses with the nucleus from the ovum, containing chromosomes from the
mother, and a potential new life begins.
• The new cell (known as the zygote) has a unique set of chromosomes. If all
goes well, it will develop into a baby.

428
 8.9. Reproductive System

Controlling fertility (contraception)

Contraception means ‘against pregnancy’ and it describes ways in which
pregnancy can be avoided.
There are several different types of contraception.
1. Natural methods of contraception are based on understanding the
menstrual cycle and accurately predicting the moment of ovulation.

• Advantages: there are no side effects and this method is permitted by

most religions. Carried out with care and scientific precision about recording
techniques it can be very effective.

• Disadvantages: it depends on full co-operation of both partners and it is

not always easy to pinpoint ovulation so pregnancy can result.

• Effectiveness: 10 pregnancies per 100 woman years.

429
 8.9 Reproductive System

Controlling fertility (contraception)

2. Physical or barrier methods of contraception involve physical barriers
which prevent the meeting of the ovum and the spermatozoa.

a. Condoms a thin latex sheath is placed over the penis during intercourse to
collect the semen and so prevent ovum and sperm meeting.
• Advantages: no side effects, don’t need medical advice, used every time you
have sex offers protection against sexually transmitted diseases such as
syphilis and HIV/AIDS.
• Disadvantages: can interrupt intercourse. Sheath may tear or get damaged
during intercourse, allowing semen to get through.
• Effectiveness: 2.5 pregnancies per 100 woman years.

b. Diaphragm or cap a thin rubber diaphragm is inserted into the vagina before
intercourse to cover the cervix and prevent the entry of sperm.
• Advantages: No side effects, offers some protection against cervical cancer.
• Disadvantages: must be initially fitted by a doctor. 430
• Effectiveness: 2.5 pregnancies per 100 woman years.
 8.9 Reproductive System

Controlling fertility (contraception)

3. Hormonal methods use variations on your natural hormones to prevent
conception.
a. The mixed pill one of the most reliable methods of contraception.
 The pill contains the female hormone oestrogen. This raises the level of oestrogen
in the blood which is detected by your pituitary gland, which in turn slows the
production of FSH.
• Advantages: the combined pill particularly is very effective at preventing
pregnancy.
• Disadvantages: the pill may increase the risk of certain tumours. It can
cause raised blood pressure and an increased tendency for the blood to clot.
• Effectiveness (combined pill): 0.5 pregnancies per 100 woman years (due
to human error in taking the pill).
b. Hormone injections – in this method of contraception a woman is given an
injection of hormones which prevents pregnancy for up to three months.
• Advantages: very effective at preventing pregnancy. Only need an
injection every three months.
431
• Disadvantages: There are some side effects it can affect your periods and may
 8.9 Reproductive System

Controlling fertility (contraception)

c. Hormone implants implanting small silicone capsules containing
female hormones very like those in the contraceptive pill under the skin.
• Advantages: is very effective at preventing pregnancy & can last for up
to 5 years.
• Disadvantages: Side effects including changes to your periods,
headaches and depression.
• Effectiveness: 0.5–1 pregnancy per 100 woman years.
4. Sterilization or surgical contraception is the ultimate form of
contraception.

a. Vasectomy in men the sperm ducts (vas deferens) are cut, preventing
sperm from getting into the semen.
b. Female sterilization in women the Fallopian tubes are cut or tied to
prevent the ovum reaching the uterus or the sperm reaching the ovum.
• Advantages: almost 100% guaranteed to prevent pregnancy. 432
• Disadvantages: for women it involves a general anesthetic.
 8.9 Reproductive System

Controlling fertility (contraception)

5. The IUD (intrauterine device) does not prevent conception the ovum
and the sperm may meet but it interferes with and prevents the
implantation of the early embryo.
• Advantages: once inserted, no further steps need to be taken. Relatively
effective at preventing implantation and pregnancy.
• Disadvantages: can cause pain and heavy periods. Can cause uterine
infections which may lead to infertility.
• Effectiveness: 2.5 pregnancies per 100 woman years.

433
 8.9 Reproductive System

Female genital mutilation and reproductive health

• FGM is the process involve removing part of the external genitalia of young
girls in surgery which is carried out without any anaesthetic, using blades or
sharpened obsidian.
• For example, about 54% of girls in SNNPR experience FGM, with 92% in
Amhara and up to 100% in Somali.
FGM has great risk in many different ways.
The process of FGM when a girl is cut can result in serious bleeding and infections
which can kill.
When the genital region is sewn closed, girls are at constant risk of infection.
Because the process of FGM leaves much scarring, this means that sexual
intercourse is often very painful for women.
The terrible scarring and narrow vaginal opening often left by FGM means that
cut women often have big problems giving birth.
Eradication of Harmful Traditional Practices (EHTP) and others are helping
people across the country to understand just how damaging FGM can be and
that the alternatives are very positive for the country as a whole. 434
 8.10. Homeostasis

• The word homeostasis comes from the Greek words homoios, which
means ‘like’ or ‘the same’, and stasis, which means ‘state’.
• So the word tells you exactly what it means – keeping the conditions in the
inside of your body (the internal environment) in the same state all the time.

• Homeostasis is the body’s ability to maintain normal function & stability.

• The nervous and hormonal systems play an enormous role in maintaining

this important balance.

• Feedback mechanisms involving both the nervous system and hormonal

systems play a very important part in maintaining homeostasis.
• Most of these control systems in the body are examples of negative
feedback.
means that when levels of a substance in your body rise, changes are
made which lower the levels again.
Similarly, when levels of a substance fall, changes are made so that it435
 8.10. Homeostasis

Controlling temperature
• One of the most important factors which animals need to control is the
internal or core body temperature.
• It is vitally important that wherever we go and whatever we do our body
temperature is maintained at the temperature (around 37 °C) at which our
enzymes work best.
• Larger animals living in many different habitats must be able to regulate
their body temperatures so they can avoid cell damage from over heating,
but also gain enough heat to have an active way of life.
There are two types of animals:
1. Poikilotherms organisms whose body temperature is governed by the
external temperature.
• They rely largely on the environment for their body heat. Their body temperature
can vary over a wide range, for example, fish and reptiles.
2. Homoiotherms organisms with a relatively constant internal body
temperature which is usually higher than the external temperature, for
example, birds and mammals. 436
 8.10. Homeostasis

Temperature control in poikilotherms

When they are cold they may:
Bask in the sun
Press their bodies close to a warm surface
Erect special sails or areas of skin which will allow them to absorb more heat from
the sun
When they are getting too hot they may:
Move into the shade
Move into water or mud
Temperature control in homoiotherms
1. Physiological methods of temperature regulation in homoiotherms
A.Sweating when you are hot sweat oozes out of the sweat glands and
spreads over the surface of the skin. Sweat is made up mainly of water and
salt but also contains a small amount of nitrogenous waste.
B.Vasodilation if the body temperature starts to go up, the blood vessels
supplying the capillaries in your skin dilate, so that more blood flows
437
through the capillaries.
 8.10. Homeostasis

Physiological methods of temperature regulation in homoiotherms

C. Panting and licking many mammals have thick, furry coats and so
cannot evaporate sweat easily from the skin surface even when they are
getting hot.
D. Vasoconstriction if your core temperature begins to fall the blood vessels
which supply your skin capillaries constrict (close up) to reduce the flow
of blood through the capillaries.
E. Piloerection (pulling the hairs upright) human beings, like other
mammals, have a layer of hair over their bodies.
F. Shivering and metabolic responses if your core body temperature
drops your metabolic rate speeds up, producing more heat energy so your
body temperature starts to go up.
As you warm up, shivering stops. But if your core body temperature starts to rise,
the metabolic rate drops so less heat is produced.
G. Fat layer under the skin (subcutaneous fat) it is important that
homoiotherms only lose or gain heat when they really need to.
So under the surface of the skin is an insulating layer of fat. This prevents
438
 8.10. Homeostasis

2. Behavioral methods of temperature regulation

A. Clothing people choose suitable clothes for the weather as we do not
have fur or feathers to keep us warm.
B. Seeking shade or shelter
C. Taking high calorie food in cold conditions. Birds and other mammals
do the same.
D. Hibernation in countries which have very cold winters, some
homoeothermic animals will hibernate. These animals eat a lot and gain a
lot of fat before hiding away in a warm nest or burrow and going into a
very deep sleep.
E. Aestivation in hot countries, some animals ‘hibernate’ through the
hottest weather as they cannot keep their bodies cool enough.
F. Wallowing or bathing some animals cannot lose enough heat through
sweating alone to keep their bodies cool enough in hot weather.
G. Burning fires, central heating, air conditioning, etc. people 439
can
change the temperature of their environment.
 8.10. Homeostasis

Homeostasis and the kidney

• Excretion getting rid of the waste products which could build up in your
body & damage your cells is one of the most important aspects of
homeostasis.
• There are two main metabolic waste products which would cause major
problems in your body if the levels rise, carbon dioxide and urea.
• The organs which are involved in getting rid of these metabolic wastes are
known as excretory organs.
• The main excretory organs in your body are: lungs, kidneys liver and
skin.
• Lungs are also an excretory organ removing carbon dioxide waste very
effectively from your body.
• Another metabolic waste which can cause serious problems is urea.
• Urea is produced in liver when excess amino acids are broken down.
• Nitrogenous waste nitrogen-rich chemical waste of several cellular
processes, excreted via urine.
440
• Osmoregulation control of the water and electrolyte balance in the body.
 8.10 Homeostasis

The kidneys
• Kidneys remove urea and control the levels of water and ions in your body.
• Blood flows into the kidney along the renal artery. The blood is filtered, so fluid
containing water, salt, urea, glucose and many other substances is forced out
into the kidney tubules.
• Each kidney has a very rich blood supply and is made up of millions of tiny
microscopic tubules (nephrons) which are where all the filtering and
reabsorption takes place.
Roles of the d/t areas of a single kidney tubule in the production of
urine.
1. Bowman’s capsule: the site of the ultrafiltration of the blood. The blood
vessel feeding into the capsule is wider than the vessel leaving the capsule,
which means the blood in the capillaries is under a lot of pressure. Filtration on
a very small scale.
2. Glomerulus: the knot of blood vessels in the Bowman’s capsule where the
pressure builds up so that ultrafiltration occurs.
3. First coiled (convoluted) tubule: the liquid which enters this first tubule 441
is
known as the glomerular filtrate. The first tubule is where much of the
 8.10. Homeostasis

The kidneys

• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) hormone produced by the pituitary gland

that reduces the production of urine in the kidneys and thereby prevents
water loss.
• Sphincter a ring of muscle that contracts to close an opening
• Urethra a duct through which urine is discharged.
• Osmoreceptors specialized nerve cells responsible for monitoring 442 the
 8.10 Homeostasis

The liver and homeostasis

 A large number of reactions take place in the liver, some of the are:

1. Control of the sugar levels in the body (through stored glycogen in the liver
itself).
2. Controlling and balancing the fats that you eat and the cholesterol levels in
your blood.
3. Protein metabolism your liver breaks down excess amino acids and forms
urea. The process of removing the amino group from excess amino acids is
known as deamination.
4. The breakdown of worn-out red blood cells in particular the red pigment
haemoglobin.
5. The formation of bile which is made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder
before it is released into your gut to emulsify fats and help in their digestion.
6. Control of toxins your liver breaks down most of the poisons you take into your
443
body, including alcohol.
 Unit 9: Food making and growth in plants (6hrs.)

This unit possesses the following main contents:

9.1. Plant organs

9.2. Photosynthesis

9.3. Transport in plants

9.4. Response in plants

444
 9.1. Plant organs

 The flowering plant is a complete organism with organs carrying out

particular functions.
 There are four main organs of a flowering plant.
 Understanding them will help you understand how a plant makes food and
grows.
1. The flowers which contain the reproductive organs.
2. The leaves which use light energy, carbon dioxide and water to make
food by photosynthesis.
3. The stem which provides support and a transport system for water and
minerals to the leaves and flowers. It also transports food from the
leaves to the roots and flowers.
4. The roots which anchor the plant to the ground and absorb water and
minerals.

445
 9.1. Plant organs

Adaptations of a leaf for photosynthesis

• The leaf is flat and wide, giving a large surface area to collect
light and short distances for gases to diffuse. The veins bring
water from the soil to the cells.
• The waxy cuticle is a waterproof layer found on the surface of
many leaves to help prevent water loss.
• The palisade mesophyll is the main photosynthetic tissue of the
plant. There are many cells, closely packed together near the
surface of the leaf to get as much light as possible.
Each cell has many chloroplasts – hundreds of them – which are spread
out through the cytoplasm of the cell when light levels are high but which
cluster at the top of the cell when light levels are low.

446
 9.1. Plant organs

Adaptations of a leaf for photosynthesis

• The spongy mesophyll has fewer cells with fewer chloroplasts. However,
there are lots of air spaces and a big surface area for gas exchange.
Some photosynthesis takes place here but more importantly it is where the
carbon dioxide needed for photosynthesis moves into the cells, and the oxygen
moves out. The water lost in transpiration evaporates from the cells here as well.
• The lower epidermis has openings known as stomata which allow carbon
dioxide to diffuse into the leaf and oxygen and water vapour to diffuse out.
• The guard cells open and close to control the entry of carbon dioxide into
the leaf and also to control the loss of water by transpiration.
 The vascular bundles contain the xylem, dead tissue which brings water
from the soil to the cells of the leaves, and the phloem, living tissue which
carries the products of photosynthesis away from the leaves to all of the
cells of the plant.
 Each chloroplast contains stacks of membranes and chlorophyll to give an
increased surface area for photosynthesis to take place. 447
 9.1. Plant organs

Adaptations of a leaf for photosynthesis

Figure 4.1 This cross section of a leaf shows that leaves of plants are perfectly adapted to make448
the
best possible use of the light that falls on them.
 9.2. photosynthesis

• Like all living organisms plants need food to provide them with the energy
for respiration, growth and reproduction.
• Many organisms, including all animals, eat food to get the energy they need
to live. They are known as heterotrophs (feeding on others).
• In contrast, plants produce their own food in a process known as
photosynthesis.
• They are known as autotrophs (feeding themselves).
• Photosynthesis takes place in the green parts of plants, especially the
leaves, in the presence of light.

449
 9.2. photosynthesis

What is needed for photosynthesis?

A. Sun Light
• The light is absolutely necessary for some of those reactions, others can
continue even if there is no light at all.
• The light-dependent reactions cannot take place without light energy.
• The light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll molecules through activation of
their electrons and used to split water molecules into hydrogen and
oxygen.
• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for energy is produced as well. The hydrogen
is used in the rest of the process, and the oxygen is given off as a gas.
• It is a waste product of the light reactions of photosynthesis.
• The hydrogen and ATP produced in the light reaction are then used in a
series of reduction reactions that convert carbon dioxide into glucose.
• This stage of the process does not need light to take place and is known as
the light-independent reaction.
450
 9.2. photosynthesis

What is needed for photosynthesis?

B. Carbon dioxide
• There is always sufficient carbon dioxide available for some photosynthesis to
take place,
• Sometimes the levels are too low for plants to take full advantage of the light
available.
• All the cells of a plant have a constant supply of water both as a waste product of
respiration and from the transpiration stream. so there is always plenty of water
for photosynthesis.
C. Water
• Carbon dioxide alone is not sufficient to produce carbohydrates. Hydrogen is
needed too, and water is the only source of hydrogen that plants can make use of.
• The oxygen gas produced during photosynthesis comes from the splitting of the
water molecules using light energy. This is known as photolysis (splitting using
light).
D. Chlorophyll 451
• The final requirement for photosynthesis to take place is a way of capturing the
 9.3. Transport in plants

• The main transport systems in plants are osmosis, diffusion and active
transport.
• Trees are obviously supported by their woody trunks. But many plants do
not have woody tissue, and so they have no structural support.
• They rely on having cells which are rigid and firm. These firm cells are
maintained by the movement of water into the cells by osmosis to create
turgor.
• This is one reason why osmosis is so important for plants.
• Osmosis is not only vital for keeping the plant cells turgid. It is also very important
for moving water around within the plant itself
• Plants take up water through their roots. The water in the soil has a very low
concentration of dissolved minerals. In other words, there is a very high
concentration of water. Water moves into the plant root cells across the cell
membrane along a concentration gradient.
• The roots are covered with special cells, which have tiny hair-like extensions called
the root hairs. 452
 9.3. Transport in plants

• Water moves into the neighboring cells by osmosis (see figure 4.10).
• These cells now have more dilute cytoplasm than the cells next to them, and the
water moves on by osmosis until it reaches the xylem and the transpiration stream.

Figure 4.10 Water moves across the tissues of a plant by 453

osmosis.
 9.3. Transport in plants

Active transport in plants

• Plants don’t just rely on osmosis and
diffusion. Active transport is also widely
used in plants. There are some
situations where active transport is
particularly important.
• For example, the mineral ions in the soil
are usually found in very dilute solutions
– more dilute than the solution within
the plant cells.
• By using active transport plants can
absorb these mineral ions, needed for
making proteins, and other important
chemicals from the soil, even though it Figure 4.11 It takes the use of energy in
is against a concentration gradient. active transport to move mineral ions
against a concentration gradient
• Active transport like this involves the 454
 9.3. Transport in plants

A double transport system

• There are two separate transport systems in plants.
1. The phloem is made up of living tissue and it is involved in the transport
of organic materials – the nutrients made by photosynthesis – from the
leaves to the rest of the plant.
Phloem cells are thin walled and are regularly replaced when they are worn out.
They contain a liquid rich in sugar
2. The xylem is the other transport tissue. It carries water and mineral ions
from the soil around the plant.
The xylem tissue is dead and there is no active transport taking place. The
movement of the water in the xylem is due to transpiration and it is passive.
This means it uses no energy from the plant. Water only moves up from the roots
to the leaves.

455
 9.3. Transport in plants

The need for transport in plants

• The importance of moving the food made by photosynthesis around the
plant is obvious – all the cells need glucose for cellular respiration as well as
materials for growth. The sugars that are produced in the leaves and carried
all around the plant can also be stored.
• However, plants cannot store sugars, because they have an osmotic effect.
If a cell had lots of sugar in it, lots of water would move into it by osmosis.
• So sugars are converted into starch, which is osmotically inert. This means
that a cell can contain lots of starch and it has no effect on the movement of
water by osmosis into or out of the cell.
• The starch stored in plant cells is broken down to sugars again to provide
them with energy when the need arises – for example, when there isn’t
enough light to photosynthesize.
• One of the main places where starch is stored is in the storage organs of plants.
Root tubers, stems and leaves can all be filled with starch to form storage organs.
456
These enable plants to survive difficult conditions and also to reproduce.
 9.3. Transport in plants

The need for transport in plants

• Starch is also deposited in large amounts in many fruits and seeds. In fruits
the starch provides a reason for animals – including people – to eat the fruit
and the seeds, helping to disperse the seeds.
• In the seeds, starch is one of the energy stores for the developing embryo to
use as the seed starts to develop.
• The movement of water and minerals from the roots is just as important as
the movement of food.
I. The minerals are needed for the production of proteins and other
molecules within the cells.
II. The water is needed for two main reasons.
One is that water is needed for photosynthesis and without water
photosynthesis cannot take place.
Secondly water is needed to maintain the turgor pressure within the cells.
457
 9.3. Transport in plants

The transpiration stream

• Water is taken into a plant through the roots and moves by osmosis to the
xylem tissue.
• There is no active transport in the xylem. So how is water moved from the roots
of a plant up to the uppermost leaf, a distance which can be many metres?
• The transport of water through a plant is the result of the transpiration
stream.
• Plants lose water vapour from the surface of their leaves. This loss of water
vapour is known as transpiration.
• Most of the transpiration takes place through the tiny holes in the surface of the
leaf known as stomata.
• The stomata are there to allow air containing carbon dioxide into the leaf for
photosynthesis.
• They can be opened and closed by the guard cells which surround them.
• Losing water through the stomata is a side effect of opening them to let carbon
458
 9.3. Transport in plants

Moving water through the plant

• As water evaporates from the surface of the leaves, water is pulled up
through the xylem to take its place.
• This constant moving of water molecules through the xylem from the roots
to the leaves is what is known as the transpiration stream.
• What factors move the water upwards? In the xylem, two physical forces
help the water to move upwards.
1. There are adhesive forces between the water and the walls of the xylem
which support the whole column of water
2. The water molecules are also pulled upwards by cohesive forces
between the water molecules.
In other words, the water molecules tend to stick together and get pulled
upwards like a string of beads
• However, the main pull which moves water up from the roots to the leaves is
the almost constant evaporation of water from the leaves. 459
 9.3. Transport in plants

Factors affecting the role of transpiration

• Because the transpiration stream is driven mainly by the evaporation of
water from the leaves, anything which affects the rate of evaporation will
affect transpiration.
1. The higher the temperature, the more evaporation takes place.
2. Water evaporates more rapidly into dry air than into humid air.
3. If the air is moving – it is windy – then watervapour-rich air is always being
removed from around the leaf.
This maintains a good concentration gradient for diffusion and increases
evaporation.
So transpiration is more rapid in hot, dry and windy conditions than it is in
still or humid conditions.
4. Plenty of light also speeds up transpiration.
• In good light conditions, lots of photosynthesis takes place and so the stomata are
opened to allow plenty of carbon dioxide in.
460
• When the stomata are open, lots more water can evaporate from the surface of
 9.3. Transport in plants

Reducing water loss

• If a plant begins to lose water faster than it is replaced by the roots, it runs
the risk of wilting.
• The stomata in the leaves will close to stop this if possible.
• To make sure that water is not lost from the surface of the leaf generally,
most leaves have a waxy, waterproof layer (known as the cuticle) to
prevent uncontrolled water loss.
• In very hot environments the cuticle may be very thick and shiny.
• The fact that the stomata are on the underside of the leaf also helps
because this means that they are not as exposed to the heat of the sun as
they would be on the top of the leaf.

461
 9.3. Transport in plants

Adaptations of plants to reduce water loss in difficult

environments
• Plants manage to grow and survive in many different environments. In many
places survival is a real struggle.
• Plants which live in very hot areas like Somali, or in areas where there is
relatively little water, often have adaptations which help them to balance up
their different needs
They may have very thick, waxy cuticles to reduce any water loss
through the overall leaf surface to an absolute minimum.
Others have developed very hairy leaves, which trap a micro-
atmosphere around the stomata and reduce water loss.
Yet other plants have reduced their leaves to very narrow spikes to
reduce the surface area over which water may be lost.
On some plants the stomata are sunk into pits.
In grasses the leaves to be rolled, trapping a micro-environment of moist
air inside. 462
 9.4. Response in plants

• All living organisms need to be able to respond to their surroundings. This may
be to find food, move towards the light or avoid danger.
• To take in information about the surroundings and then react in the right way is
known as co-ordination.
• Coordination is common in animals, but plants need to be coordinated too.
• They need to respond to factors such as:
• light, water and gravity to make sure that they grow the right way up, and that
they make as much food by photosynthesis as possible.
• Plants achieve their co-ordination and responsiveness through a system of
hormones.
• Hormones are chemical messengers which are produced in one part of an
organism and have an effect elsewhere.
• Plant hormones (phytohormones) have several effects on plants. For example,
they co-ordinate flowering, cell division and cell elongation
• These are essentially growth processes and plant responses of this type are 463
 9.4. Response in plants

The germination of seeds

• In most flowering plants, growth starts when the seed begins to germinate.
• Seeds come in many different sizes and shapes, but the basic structure of
seeds always contains certain things:
1. Food storage tissue known as the endosperm.
2. An embryo plant made up of three main parts: –
 the plumule (embryonic shoot),
the radicle (embryonic root) and
the cotyledons (embryonic leaves).
3. The testa – the seed coat, which may be thin and papery like the covering
on a groundnut or very strong and hard like the shell of a nut.
It is the number of these embryonic leaves that are present which gives us
the main division of the angiosperms into monocotyledons (one seed leaf)
and dicotyledons (two seed leaves). 464
 9.4. Response in plants
The germination of seeds

• In monocots the main food store is the

endosperm and the embryo remains a very
small part of the seed.
• In dicots the endosperm moves food into
the cotyledons which become the main food
store.
By the time the seed is mature the
endosperm has all but disappeared.
The embryo with its food swollen leaves
takes up most of the seed (see figure
4.21).
• Once the food store has been laid down and
the embryo has developed the seed dries
out (dehydrates). Figure 4.21 The internal
arrangements of monocot and dicot
• It loses much of its wet mass and becomes
seeds
465
 9.4. Response in plants

The germination of seeds

• Once a seed is mature and conditions are right – it needs water, warmth and
oxygen – the seed begins to germinate.
• To begin with chemical changes take place inside the seed. As the seed absorbs
water, the large insoluble food molecules stored in it undergo changes.
• They are broken down (hydrolysed) into soluble food. The main food storage
material in seeds is starch, and it is stored either in the cotyledons or in the
endosperm.
• This starch store is converted to sugars by the action of the enzyme diastase. In
some seeds fats and oils are stored.
• In these seeds the enzyme lipase catalyses the hydrolysis of fats to fatty acids and
glycerol.
• Proteolytic enzymes present in the seeds catalyse the hydrolysis of proteins to
amino acids.
• A lot of energy is needed during germination. The seed cannot make its own food
by photosynthesis while it is underground, so the energy needed comes from the
466
stored food materials.
 9.4. Response in plants

The germination of seeds

• Germination of any type can occur only in a seed
which is viable. A viable seed is one in which the
embryo is alive.
• The length of time a seed can remain viable varies in
different species.
• Many seeds can remain viable for up to 50 years if
properly stored.
• When seeds germinate it is vital that the parts of the
seedling grow in the right directions.
• The new roots must grow down into the soil to get
the water and minerals the new plant needs.
• The shoot must grow upwards towards the light so
that the new shoots can photosynthesise and make
as much food as possible so the seedling can grow.
467
• How is the direction of growth of plants controlled?
 9.4. Response in plants

The germination of seeds

Epigeal (dicot) and hypogeal (monocot) germination
• Seeds germinate in different ways. When the bean seedling emerges from
the soil it is curved.
• The curved portion, the hypocotyl, pushes through the soil. As germination
continues, the hypocotyl straightens and carries the cotyledons and the
plumule above the soil surface.
• This type of germination, where the cotyledons are carried above the soil, is
called epigeal germination.
• Most dicotyledonous plants have seeds which exhibit epigeal germination.
Such seeds include castor oil seeds, groundnuts, cotton and bambara nuts.
• Epigeal germination also occurs in a few monocotyledonous seeds such as
onions and lilies.

468
 9.4. Response in plants

The germination of seeds

Epigeal (dicot) and hypogeal (monocot) germination
• Germination of a maize grain follows a different pattern from that of a bean
seed.
• The plumule pushes its way out of the soil while the cotyledon remains
underground.
• The plumule does not form a hook as in bean seeds.
• This type of germination in which the cotyledons remain underground is
called hypogeal germination.
• Other examples of grains exhibiting hypogeal germination are wheat,
sorghum and millet.
• A few dicotyledonous seeds such as kidney beans and broad beans exhibit
hypogeal germination.

469
 9.4. Response in plants

The germination of seeds

Epigeal (dicot) and hypogeal (monocot) germination

Figure 4.22 a) Dicot (epigeal) germination, b) monocot (hypogeal) 470

germination
 9.4. Response in plants

Plant hormones and growth

• Growth in plants is influenced by chemical messengers called plant
hormones.
• Examples of plant hormones are:
 Auxins (including indole-acetic acid, IAA),
Gibberellic acid,
Cytokinin,
 Ethylene and
Abscisic acid.
• Some of these hormones promote growth, others inhibit it.
• Some of them will promote growth in one type of plant tissue and inhibit it in
others!

471
 9.4. Response in plants

Plant hormones and growth

• Auxin (IAA) is the best-known plant hormone and it is
involved in general plant growth.
• It stimulates the elongation of the new plant cells, so
they get longer and bigger. It is also involved in
apical dominance.
• IAA is made at the tip of the main shoot and as it
moves down the stem it slows down the growth of side
shoots. So the main shoot dominates the whole plant.
• If you cut off the growing tip of a plant it will bush out.
The side shoots grow quickly once you remove the
apical dominance from the auxins produced by the
main shoot.
• Auxin also stimulates the growth of roots.
• If auxin is applied to a cut stem it will stimulate new
roots to grow – this is widely used by gardeners and
farmers in some parts of the world to help them take 472
 9.4. Response in plants

Plant hormones and growth

• Another group of plant hormones are the gibberellins. These hormones
stimulate the growth of plant stems. If you give it gibberellins the stems will
grow until the plant is a normal size.
Gibberellins also help seeds to break their dormant period and start to grow.
• Cytokinins are hormones that stimulate cell division in plants so they are
very important in plant growth. The balance between auxins and cytokinins
in a tissue culture of plant cells decides whether roots or shoots will grow.
• Ethylene, a plant hormone, is a gas at room temperature and it causes
fruit to ripen. It also causes fruit and leaves to fall from the plant in some
species.
• Abscisic acid (ABA) is another important plant hormone. It inhibits
growth and plays a major role in leaf fall. It is also involved in seed
dormancy.
There is some evidence that it may be involved in geotropisms, but it plays a
473
small part compared to IAA.
 9.4. Response in plants

Tropic responses
• Responses to stimuli that come from one direction are known as tropisms
• The responses of plants are may be towards things such as light and gravity
• The response in which shoots grow towards the light is termed positive
phototropism.

Figure 4.24 Seedlings respond vigorously to light – and if it only comes 474
from one side, they will grow towards it.
 9.4. Response in plants

Tropic responses
• Movement in response to the stimulus of gravity is called geotropism.
• Roots are positively geotropic (they grow towards gravity) while shoots are
negatively geotropic (they grow away from gravity).
• The type of response by which roots grow towards water is termed
hydrotropism.
• The growth of roots upwards towards water against the force of gravity
suggests that water as a stimulus has a greater influence on root growth
than gravity
• In each of the activities, the stimulus has been from one direction
(unilateral) and the growth responses have been either towards or away
from the source of the stimulus.
• These responses are therefore described as directional responses, tropic
responses or tropisms.
475
 Unit 10: Ecology and conservation of natural resources (8 hrs.)

This unit possesses the following main contents:

10.1. Definitions

10.2. Cycling matter through ecosystems

10.3. Ecological succession

10.4. Biomes

10.5. Conservation and Biodiversity

10.6. Vegetation and wildlife

10.7. Global warming and air pollution

476
 Unit 10: Ecology and conservation of natural resources (8 hrs.)

10.1. Definition of Ecology

The term ecology was derived from Greek words- oikos meaning – at home
and ology- meaning – the study

Thus ecology thought as the study of the home life of living organism

It is the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of organisms

and how these properties are affected by interactions between the organism
and their living and non living environment.

Generally, ecology is the study of the relationship of plants and animals to

their physical and biological environment.
477
 10.2. Cycling matter through ecosystems

What are the main stages in the carbon cycle?

The main processes involved in cycling carbon through ecosystems are:

1. Photosynthesis – the process that fixes carbon atoms from an inorganic

source (carbon dioxide) into organic compounds (for example, glucose)
2. Feeding and assimilation – feeding passes carbon atoms already in
complex molecules to the next trophic level in the food chain where they
are assimilated into (become part of) the body of that organism
3. Respiration – this releases inorganic carbon dioxide from organic
compounds
4. Fossilization – sometimes living things do not decay fully when they die
due to the conditions in the soil, and fossil fuels (for example, coal, oil and
peat) are formed
5. Combustion – fossil fuels are burned, releasing carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere
478
 10.2. Cycling matter through ecosystems

What are the main stages in the carbon cycle?

479
 10.2. Cycling matter through ecosystems

The main processes involved in nitrogen carbon through ecosystems

are:
1. Plants absorb nitrates from the soil
2. The nitrates are then used to form amino acids, which are used to
synthesise proteins
3. The plants are eaten by animals, the proteins digested and the amino
acids absorbed and assimilated into animal proteins
4. Both plants and animals die, leaving a collection of dead materials
(detritus) which contain the nitrogen still fixed in organic molecules; in
addition, excretory products such as urea also contain nitrogen
5. Decomposers decay the excretory products and detritus, releasing
ammonium ions (NH4+) into the soil; this process is often referred to as
ammonification
6. Nitrifying bacteria oxidise the ammonium ions to nitrates (NO3–) (which
are taken up by the plants) in a process called nitrification; in this process
480
there is an intermediate product called nitrite (NO2–)
 10.2. Cycling matter through ecosystems

The main processes involved in nitrogen carbon through ecosystems

are:
 These processes recycle nitrogen that is already in biological molecules of
one kind or another. But besides this, two other processes, denitrification
and nitrogen fixation, decrease or increase, respectively, the amount of
nitrogen in circulation.
1. Denitrifying bacteria reduce nitrate to nitrogen gas that escapes from
the soil. This decreases the total amount of nitrogen available to the
plants, and, therefore, to all the other organisms also.
2. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria ‘fix’ nitrogen gas into ammonium ions. This
happens in two main situations:
a. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria free in the soil (belonging to the genera
Azotobacter and Klebsiella) reduce nitrogen gas into ammonium ions in
the soil. These ammonium ions can be oxidized immediately into nitrates by
nitrifying bacteria, adding to the amount of nitrogen available to the plants
and, therefore, the other organisms also.
481
b. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in nodules on the roots of legumes (belonging
 10.2. Cycling matter through ecosystems

The main processes involved in nitrogen carbon through ecosystems

are:

482
 10.2. Cycling matter through ecosystems

How is phosphorus recycled?

 The core phosphorus cycle is much the same as the core nitrogen cycle.
Phosphorus is present in organisms in the form of phosphates.

• phosphate is absorbed from the soil (or water) by plants these are passed
along food chains to various herbivores and carnivores

• on death, their bodies are decomposed and phosphate ions are released
from compounds like phospholipids, ATP, DNA and RNA and are returned to
the soil or water
• phosphates also enter the soil (or water) as a result of the weathering of
rocks and in the form of fertilizer's, which, themselves, contain phosphates
that have been obtained from rocks
• over millions of years, phosphate ions can leach into the seas and become
part of newly forming sedimentary rock. 483
 10.2. Cycling matter through ecosystems

How is phosphorus recycled?

484
 10.2. Cycling matter through ecosystems

How is Sulphur recycled?

• sulphate ions in the soil are taken up by plants and incorporated in plant
tissue (many proteins include some sulphur-containing amino acids, such as
methionine and cysteine)
• these are passed to animals by feeding and digestion
• on death of the plants and animals, sulphate-reducing bacteria release the
sulphur in the proteins in the form of hydrogen sulphide (with the smell of
‘bad eggs’);
the most important genus of bacteria involved in this process is
Desulphovibrio; this process requires anaerobic conditions
• in some aquatic environments the hydrogen sulphide is oxidized to sulphur
by photosynthetic sulphur bacteria; this reaction is the equivalent of the
photolysis of water in the photosynthesis of higher plants
• sulphur bacteria, mainly of the genus Thiobacillus, then oxidise the
hydrogen sulphide (or sulphur) to sulphate (SO42–), with sulphite (SO32–) as
an intermediate step; this is an oxygen requiring process that needs aerobic
485
 10.2. Cycling matter through ecosystems

How is Sulphur recycled?

• sulphur can also become incorporated in
rocks, including those that yield fossil
fuels

• combustion of fossil fuels oxidises the

sulphur to sulphur dioxide (SO2); this is a
serious pollutant of the atmosphere and a
major contributor to the formation of acid
rain

• in the atmosphere, the sulphur dioxide

becomes further oxidised to sulphite and
sulphate which dissolve in rainwater to
form a mixture of sulphurous and
sulphuric acid: acid rain 486
 10.2. Cycling matter through ecosystems

What about the water cycle?

Water is essential to all living organisms in
all kinds of ways:
• It makes up 70% of all cells
• It is an essential requirement of
photosynthesis
• It is the basis of all transport systems in
organisms
• It provides a means of removing excretory
products

487
 10.3. Ecological succession

• The ecosystems that exist today did not always exist. They have developed
from other previous systems by succession.
• And many of them began on completely bare ground. Bare rock does not
remain bare for long.
• Very soon, lichens can be seen growing on the surface of the rock.
• These extremely resilient organisms are able to colonise harsh environments
and reproduce there. They are pioneer species.
• Through the natural recycling processes the very presence of the lichens must
change the abiotic conditions, making them less harsh.
• The living lichens grow into the rock causing it to crumble. When the lichens
die, decomposers act on the remains to release mineral ions into the crumbled
rock.
• The mixture of dead remains, crumbled rock and mineral ions forms a primitive
soil. This less harsh environment is suitable for mosses (provided that there is
sufficient water).
• So, spores of mosses that land there can now ‘germinate’ and the mosses grow,
488
 10.3. Ecological succession

• This is the essence of succession:

Organisms colonise an area.

They change the abiotic (physical) conditions in the area.

The changed abiotic conditions allow other species to colonise the area.

The new species compete with the ones there before and become
dominant.
They also then change the abiotic conditions, more species enter and
the process continues.
• The various stages in a succession are called seres.
• As successive producers colonise the area, they create more and different
habitats and niches for other organisms to occupy.
489
• As a consequence, succession usually involves an increase in the complexity
10.3. Ecological succession

490
 10.4. Biomes

In 1875, the geologist Eduard Suess first coined the term biosphere. He used
this to describe the layer of the Earth’s surface where life is found.
 We divide the biosphere into a number of biomes. The concept of a biome
brings together several ideas.
 A biome is a geographical or regional area with:
• a specific climate, and
• a specific soil type, and
• specific animals and plants that are adapted in similar ways to the abiotic
conditions within the area.
 Temperature and precipitation (rainfall) are the most significant climatic
factors in determining biome type.
 These, in turn, are determined to a very large extent by geographical
location.
 There have been many classifications of the different biomes and scientists
are still refining their ideas but we can classify the biomes into two main 491
types:
 10.4. Biomes

The characteristics of the major terrestrial biome

492
 10.4. Biomes

The characteristics of the major aquatic biome

493
 10.5. Conservation and Biodiversity

• Conservation is the protection and preservation of our natural resources

• Natural resources can be classified:
1. Renewable
2. Nonrenewable.
• Renewable resources are mainly living things and their products.
Managed carefully, they can be used, reused and replaced.
Examples of renewable resources are crop plants, trees, cattle and chickens.
• Non-renewable resources are not living, and when they are used they
cannot be replaced.
Examples of non-renewable resources include metals like gold and iron and
fossil fuels like gas, coal and oil.

494
 10.5. Conservation and Biodiversity

• Biodiversity is a measure of the wealth of species in a given place. It

includes everything from the smallest microbe to the largest animal.
• Sometimes biodiversity is measured just as the number of species in a given
area at a particular time.
• Sometimes it is measured as the number of species breeding in an area at a
particular time. This second measure is more accurate.
• An animal might be just passing through on the day you observe what is
there so it is more accurate to measure the species which live and breed in
an area!
• But just counting the number of different species of organisms in an area
gives us a good idea of biodiversity and is easier to do.
• The most usual way to think of biodiversity is in terms of species richness.
This is quite simply the number of different species that are present in an
ecosystem.
495
 10.6. Vegetation and wildlife

• Ethiopia have a rich and varied vegetation.

• We have ecosystems which vary from desert to tropical rainforests, and the
vegetation across the country changes dramatically with the conditions.
• We have some of the lowest-lying areas of Africa, and some of the highest
peaks.

496
 10.6. Vegetation and wildlife

Endemic species of vegetation

• Ethiopia is a country which is internationally recognised for its rich diversity
of plant species.
• We have around 7000 different species of higher plants alone, with up to
800 endemic species.
• An endemic species is an organism that is only found in a particular area –
so we have around 800 endemic plants which grow wild in parts of Ethiopia.
• They are very important to both Ethiopian and world biodiversity!
• Examples of our endemic species include:
 teff (Eragrostis teff), many Euphorbia spps,
noug or niger seed (Guizotia abyssinica),
enset (Ensete ventricosum),
Ficus vasta Forssk, zigba, juniper (tid),
kererro and sembo trees and many other species. 497
 10.6. Vegetation and wildlife

Conservation of vegetation
• Ways in which we can conserve our vegetation are many and varied.
• It needs as many people as possible to understand what needs to be done
and to work together to conserve and restore our magnificent plant heritage.
• The Government of Ethiopia is working with many different groups to
encourage the replanting of land with endemic species.
• Research institutions are looking at indigenous knowledge and using local
practices of looking after resources.
• Much research into our native plants is going on, and more care taken when
introducing exotic plants.
• One of the most important ways in which we are conserving our vegetation –
and our wildlife – is in the setting up of our internationally famous
National Parks.
498
 10.6. Vegetation and wildlife

Wildlife
• The wildlife of Ethiopia is some of the richest in the world. We have 242 listed
mammalian species, which range from huge elephants to tiny elephant shrews.
• There are around 862 species of birds as well. Insects are another important
aspect of Ethiopian wildlife too. This variety of wildlife is useful to people in a
number of ways.
• A rich diversity of animal life is important to maintain our many ecosystems.
• The wildlife acts as pollinators for our flowering plants and helps to disperse the
seeds. Our bees provide the honey for a thriving export business and for the
production of tej.
• The balance of wildlife in different regions helps to maintain the natural balance
of the plants as well, with predators keeping down the numbers of herbivores so
that they do not destroy all the vegetation.
• Some of the wildlife acts as a genetic bank for our domestic animals and can499be
used as a source of genetic diversity. However, one of the most important uses
 10.6. Vegetation and wildlife

Endemic species of wildlife

• We have a high number of endemic species of different types of wildlife.
• For example,
There are 28 species of mammals, which include the gelada baboon,
the walia ibex, menelik’s bushbuck, the mountain nyala, swayne’s
hartebeest and the Ethiopian wolf
Endemic bird species include the heavy-headed, thick-billed raven, the
wattled ibis, the blackwinged lovebird, the white-collared pigeon and the
prince ruspolis turaco.
We also have six endemic reptiles and around 33 endemic
amphibians.
• These animals and many others are found only within the boundaries of
Ethiopia.
500
 10.6. Vegetation and wildlife

Conservation of wildlife
• Conservation involves protecting habitats and managing populations.
Another method involves preventing the spread of disease.
• Many of the conservation points which we will discuss for animals apply to
vegetation as well.
• Ethiopia is one of the most enlightened of the African countries in its
approach to conservation. In particular, we have set up and maintain a
number of National Parks.
• A National Park is a relatively large area of land which is owned by the
Government and is set aside for the protection of vegetation and wildlife and
for their appreciation by human beings.
• A National Park should contain several ecosystems which are not affected by
human activities.
• It is protected legally and there should be staff (rangers) who manage and
501
 10.6. Vegetation and wildlife

Conservation of wildlife
• National Parks of Ethiopia along with some of the wildlife sanctuaries that
have been set up to protect specific species.
• In each conservation area some of the common species of wildlife is exist.

1. Abijatta-Shalla Lakes National 9. Simien Mountains National

Park Park
2. Awash National Park 10.Yangudi Rassa National Park
3. Bale Mountain National Park 11.Harar Wildlife Sanctuary
4. Gambela National Park 12.Kuni-Muktar Mountain Nyala
5. Rift Valley Lakes National Park Sanctuary
6. Mago National Park 13.Senkelle Swayne’s Hartebeest
7. Omo National Park Sanctuary
8. Nechisar National Park
502
 10.7. Global warming and air pollution

Pollution is the contamination of the natural environment by harmful

substances as a result of human activities.
A pollutant can be defined as something that contaminates the air, soil and
water.
What is in air pollution?
 Air pollution comes in various forms, each of which has serious implications for
our health and well-being as well as for the whole environment.
 One type of air pollution is smoke produced by burning fuel for energy.
 Much of the fuel we use is fossil fuel – coal, oil or gas, or electricity produced by
burning them.
 Fossil fuels contain chemicals known as hydrocarbons. When these fuels are
burnt, tiny particles of unburnt hydrocarbons are released into the air.
 Diesel smoke is a good example of this.
 The particles are very small pieces of matter. This type of pollution is
sometimes referred to as ‘black carbon’ pollution. The exhaust from burning503
 10.7. Global warming and air pollution

What is in air pollution?

• Another major cause of air pollution is the production of carbon dioxide. Carbon
dioxide is produced by living organisms as a waste product of respiration.
• It is used by plants in the process of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is also
produced as a result of burning wood and fossil fuels.
Why is carbon dioxide increasing?
• But now the amount of carbon dioxide produced is increasing fast as the result of
human activities.
• Around the world people are burning huge amounts of fossil fuels in cars, planes and
also in power stations to generate electricity.
• This speed means that the natural sinks cannot cope, and so the levels of carbon
dioxide are building up.
• Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is important because of the greenhouse effect. It
traps some of the heat from the sun and keeps the surface of the Earth warm enough
for life as we know it.
• But the build-up of carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere from human activities seems
504
 10.7. Global warming and air pollution

Global warming
• So as a result of human activities the amount of carbon dioxide (and
methane) in the air is continuing to increase.
• This build-up acts like a blanket and traps heat close to the surface of our
Earth.
• This causes the temperature at the surface of the Earth to rise.
• This in turn may have many effects on our climate and health – and it is also
thought to contribute to the increased hurricane activity which has affected
some areas of the world in recent times.
• Another air pollutant is carbon monoxide, also produced by the burning of
fossil fuels.
• It is produced by cars as well as by home water heaters, paraffin lamps and
fires if they are not functioning properly.
• Carbon monoxide is very dangerous because it combines irreversibly with 505