Chapter 3: The Mole and

Stoichiometry

Chemistry: The Molecular

Nature of Matter
 Stoichiometry
 Mass balance of all formulas involved in
chemical reactions
Stoichiometric Calculations
 Conversions from one set of units to
another using Dimensional Analysis
 Need to know:
1. Equalities to make conversion factors
2. Steps to go from starting units to desired
units

2
Molecular to Laboratory Scale
 So far, we have looked at chemical
formulas & reactions at a molecular scale.
 It is known from experiments that:
 Electrons, neutrons & protons have set
masses.
 Atoms must also have characteristic masses
 Just extremely small
 Need a way to scale up chemical formulas
& reactions to carry out experiments in
laboratory
 Mole is our conversion factor
3
 The Mole
 Number of unites in exactly 12 grams of 12
C
atoms
How many atoms in 1 mole of C?
12

 Based on experimental evidence

1 mole of C = 6.022 × 1023 atoms = 12.011 g
12

Avogadro’s number = NA
 Number of atoms, molecules or particles in
one mole
 1 mole of X = 6.022 × 1023 units of X
 1 mole Xe = 6.022×1023 Xe atoms
 1 mole NO2 = 6.022×1023 NO2 molecules

4
 Moles of Compounds
Atoms
 Atomic Mass
 Mass of atom (from periodic table)
 1 mole of atoms = 6.022×1023 atoms
= gram atomic mass
Example:
1 mole S = 6.022×1023 atoms of S = 32.06 g S
1 mole N = 6.022×1023 atoms of N = 14.01 g N

5
 Moles of Compounds
Molecules
 Molecular Mass
 Sum of atomic masses of all atoms in
compound’s formula
1 mole of molecule X = 6.022 × 1023 molecules
= gram molecular mass
of X
Example:
1 mole H2O = 6.022×1023 molecules of H2O =
18.00 g H2O
1 mole NH3 = 6.022×1023 molecules of NH3 =
17.01 g NH3
6
 SI Unit for Amount = Mole
1 mole of substance X = gram molar mass of X
 1 mole S = 32.06 g S
 1 mole NO2= 46.01 g NO2
 Molar mass is our conversion
factor between g & moles
 1 mole of X = 6.022 × 1023 units of X
 NA is our conversion factor
between moles & molecules
 1 mole H2O = 6.022 × 1023
molecules H2O
 1 mole NaCl = 6.022 × 1023
formula units NaCl
7
General
1 mol of X = gram molar mass of X
= 6.022 × 1023 X
X : element, molecule, or ionic compound

Molar mass (MM)

Mass of 1 mole of substance (element, molecule,
or ionic compound) under consideration

8
 Do You Understand Molar Mass?
What is the Molar mass of Ca3(PO4)2 ?

1 formula unit of Ca3(PO4)2

3 Ca 3 x 40.08
2P 2 x 30.97
8O + 8 x 16.00
310.18 amu
g /mol

3.3
10
 Learning Check: Using Molar
Mass
Ex. How many moles of iron (Fe) are in
15.34 g Fe?
 What do we know?
1 mol Fe = 55.85 g Fe (55.85 g from
periodic table)
? Mol Fe
End =15.34 g Festart- mol Fe =
0.2747

 Set up ratio so that what you want is on top &

what you start
1 mol  on the bottom
Fe is
with
15.34g Fe   = 0.2747 mole Fe
 55.85g Fe 
11
 Your Turn!
How many moles of CO2 are there in 10.0 g?
A. 1.00 mol
1 mol CO2 = 44.01 g CO2
B. 0.0227 mol
Molar mass of CO2 from periodic
C. 4.401 mol table
D. 44.01 mol 1 × 12.01 g = 12.01 g C
E. 0.227 mol 2 × 16.00 g = 32.00 g O
1 mol CO2 = 44.01 g CO2
 1 molCO2 
10.0 g CO2  
 44.01g CO2 
= 0.227 mol CO2
12
 Learning Check: Using Molar
Mass
Ex. If we need 0.168 mole Ca3(PO4)2 for an
experiment, how many grams do we need
to weigh out?
 Calculate MM of Ca3(PO4)2
3 × mass Ca = 3 × 40.08 g = 120.24 g
2 × mass P = 2 × 30.97 g = 61.94 g
8 × mass O = 8 × 16.00 g = 128.00 g
1 mole Ca3(PO4)2 = 310.18 g
Ca3(PO4)2

13
 Learning Check: Using Molar
 What do we wantMass
to determine?
1 mol Ca3(PO4)2 = 310.18 g Ca3(PO4)2
0.168 mol Ca3(PO4)2 = ? g Ca3(PO4)2
mass of Ca3(PO4)2 = 52.11 g Ca3(PO4)2
 Set up ratio so that what you want is on
the top & what you start with is on the
bottom  310.18g Ca3 (PO4 ) 2 
0.160molCa3 (PO4 ) 2  
 1 molCa3 (PO4 ) 2 

= 52.11 g Ca3(PO4)2
14
 Your Turn!
How many grams of platinum (Pt) are in
0.475 mole Pt?
A. 195 g Molar mass of Pt = 195.08 g/mol
B. 0.0108 g 1 mol Pt = 195.08 g Pt
0.475 mol pt = ?? g Pt
C. 0.000513 g
 195.08g Pt 
D. 0.00243 g 0.475molPt  
 1 molPt 
E. 92.7 g
= 92.7 g Pt
 Macroscopic to Microscopic
How many silver atoms are in a 85.0 g silver
bracelet?
 What do we know?
1 mol Ag= 107.87 g Ag from periodic table
1 mol Ag = 6.022×1023 Ag atoms
 What do we want to determine?
85.0 g silver = ? Mol Ag = ? atoms silver
gram Ag  mol Ag  atoms Ag
 1 molAg   6.0221023 atomsAg
85.0 g Ag  
 107.87g Ag  1 molAg 


= 4.7 × 1023 Ag atoms

16
 Using Avogadro’s Number
What is the mass, in grams, of one molecule of
octane, C8H18?
Molecules octane  mol octane  g
octane
1. Calculate molar mass of octane
Mass C = 8 × 12.01 g = 96.08 g
Mass H = 18 × 1.008 g = 18.14 g
1 mol octane = 114.22 g octane
12. Convert
14.22 1 molecule
g octane  of 1octane to grams 
moloctane
   23

 1 moloctane   6.02210 moleculesoctane

= 1.897 × 10–22 g octane 17

 Learning Check: Mole
1) Calculate theConversions
number of formula units of
Na2CO3 in 1.29 moles of Na2CO3.
 6.02231023 formulaunitsNa2CO3 
1.29molNa2CO3  
 1 mol Na CO 
 2 3 
= 7.77×1023 particles Na2CO3
2)How many moles of Na2CO3 are there in 1.15
x 105 formula units of Na2CO3 ?
 1 molNa CO 
1.1510 formulaunitsNa2CO3 
5 2 3 
 6.02231023 formulaunitsNa CO 
 2 3

= 1.91×10–19 mol Na2CO3

18
 Your Turn!
How many atoms are in 1.00 x 10–9 g of U (1
ng)? Molar mass U = 238.03 g/mole.
A.6.02 x 1014 atoms
B.4.20 x 1011 atoms
C.2.53 x 1012 atoms
D.3.95 x 10–31 atoms
E.2.54 x 1021 atoms

1.0010
9
  1 molU   6.0221023 atomsU 
g U  
 238.03 g U   1 molU 

= 2.53 x 1012 atoms U
19
 Your Turn!
Calculate the mass in grams of FeCl3 in 1.53
× 1023 formula units. (molar mass = 162.204
g/mol)
A. 162.2 g
B. 0.254 g unit- mole -gram
C. 1.661×10–22 g 1mol unit = 6.022x1023
D. 41.2 g 1 mol FeCl3 = 162.204 g
E. 2.37×23 10
–22  1 mol FeCl   162.2 g FeCl3 
1.5310 unitsFeCl  3   
3
6.0221023
unitsFeCl   1 mol FeCl3 
 3

= 41.2 g FeCl3
20
Using Moles in Calculations
 Start with either
 Grams (Macroscopic)
 Elementary units
(Microscopic)
 Use molar mass to
convert from grams to
mole
 Use Avogadro’s number to
convert from moles to
elementary units

21
 Mole-to-Mole Conversion
 Factors
Can use chemical formula to relate
amount of each atom to amount of
compound
 In H2O there are 3 relationships:
 2 mol H ⇔ 1 mol H2O
 1 mol O ⇔ 1 mol H2O
 2 mol H ⇔ 1 mol O
 Can also use these on atomic scale
 2 atom H ⇔ 1 molecule H2O
 1 atom O ⇔ 1 molecule H2O
 2 atom H ⇔ 1 molecule O
22
 Stoichiometric Equivalencies
 Within chemical compounds, moles of
atoms always combine in the same ratio as
the individual atoms themselves
 Ratios of atoms in chemical formulas must
be whole numbers!!
 These ratios allow us to convert between
moles of each quantity
Ex. N2O5
2 mol N ⇔ 1 mol N2O5
5 mol O ⇔ 1 mol N2O5
2 mol N ⇔ 5 mol O
23
Stoichiometric Equivalencies
Equivalency Mole Mole
Ratio Ratio
2 mol N 1 mol N2O5
2 mol N ⇔ 1 mol
N2O5 1 mol N2O5 2 mol N

5 mol O 1 mol N2O5

5 mol O ⇔ 1 mol
N2O5 1 mol N2O5 5 mol O

5 mol O 2 mol N
2 mol N ⇔ 5 mol O
2 mol N 5 mol O

24
 Calculating the Amount of a
Compound by Analyzing One Element
Calcium phosphate is widely found in natural
minerals, bones, and some kidney stones. A
sample is found to contain 0.864 moles of
phosphorus. How many moles of Ca3(PO4)2 are
in that sample?
What do we want to find?
0.864 mol P = ? mol Ca3(PO4)2
What do we know?
20mol P ⇔ 1 1mol
molCa33((PO
Ca PO4 ))2 
.864molP  4 2

Solution  2 molP 
= 0.432 mol Ca3(PO4)2
25
 Your Turn!
Calculate the number of moles of calcium in
2.53 moles of Ca3(PO4)2
A. 2.53 mol Ca
B. 0.432 mol Ca
C. 3.00 mol Ca
D. 7.59 mol Ca
E. 0.843 mol Ca
2.53 moles of Ca3(PO4)2 = ? mol Ca
3 mol Ca  1 mol Ca3(PO4)2
 3 molCa 
2.53molCa3 (PO4 ) 2  
 1 molCa3 (PO4 ) 2 
= 7.59 mol Ca
26
 Mass-to-Mass Calculations
 Common laboratory calculation
 Need to know what mass of reagent B is
necessary to completely react given mass
of reagent A to form a compound
 Stoichiometry comes from chemical
formula of compounds
 Subscripts
 Summary of steps
mass A → moles A → moles B → mass B

27
 Mass-to-Mass Calculations
Chlorophyll, the green pigment in leaves, has
the formula C55H72MgN4O5. If 0.0011 g of Mg is
available to a plant for chlorophyll synthesis,
how many grams of carbon will be required to
completely use up the magnesium?
Analysis
0.0011 g Mg ⇔ ? g C
0.0011 g Mg → mol Mg → mol C → g C
Assembling the tools
24.3050 g Mg = 1 mol Mg
1 mol Mg ⇔ 55 mol C
1 mol C = 12.011 g C
28
Ex. Mass-to-Mass Conversion

1 mol Mg ⇔ 24.3 g Mg 1 mol C ⇔ 12.0 g C

0.0011 g Mg → mol Mg → mol C → g

C 1 mol Mg ⇔ 55 mol C

 1 molMg   55 molC   12.0g C 

0.0011g Mg     
 24.3g Mg  1 molMg  1 molC 

= 0.030 g C
29
 Your Turn!
How many g of iron are required to use up all
of 25.6 g of oxygen atoms (O) to form Fe2O3?
A. 59.6 g mass O  mol O  mol Fe 
mass Fe
B. 29.8 g 25.6 g O  ? g Fe
C. 89.4 g 3 mol O  2 mol
D. 134 g Fe
E. 52.4 g
 1 molO   2 molFe   55.845g Fe 
25.6g O      
 16.0g O   3 molO   1 molFe 
= 59.6 g Fe
30
 How many molecules are in 10 g of hydrogen gas (H 2)? MM of H2 =
2.0 g/mol
A) 30.1x1023 B) 6.02x1023
C) 60.2x1023 D) 12.04x1023
 How many moles of oxygen are in 1.7x1027 CO2 molecules?
A) 3.8x107 B) 2.8x10-7
B) C) 1.7x1017 D) 5.6x10-7
 How many nitrogen atoms are in 10 g of NH 3? MM of NH3 = 17.0
g/mol
A) 54.1X1021 B) 3.54X1023
B) C) 10.62X1023 D) 0.75 x1023
 How many grams of carbon are there in 71 g of ethanol (C 2H6O)?
molar Mass of C = 12.0 g/mol; molar mass of H = 1.0 g/mol; Molar
Mass of O = 16 g/mol
 A) 24.69 g B) 426 g
 C) 37.04 g D) 142 g

31
 Percentage Composition
 Way to specify relative masses of each
element in a compound
 List of percentage by mass of each element
Percentage by Mass
massof element
% by massof element 100%
massof sample
Ex. Na2CO3 is
 43.38% Na
 11.33% C
 45.29% O
 What is sum of % by mass? 100.00%
32
 Ex. Percent Composition
 Determine percentage composition based on
chemical analysis of substance
Ex. A sample of a liquid with a mass of 8.657 g
was decomposed into its elements and gave
5.217 g of carbon, 0.9620 g of hydrogen, and
2.478 g of oxygen. What is the percentage
composition of this compound?
Analysis:
 Calculate % by mass of each element in sample
Tools:
 Eqn for % by mass
 Total mass = 8.657 g
 Mass of each element
33
 Ex. % Composition of
 g C  Compound5.217g C
For C:  100% 
 g total  100% = 60.26% C
  8.657g
 gH  0.9620g H
For H:  100%  100%= 11.11% H
 g total  8.657g
 gO  2.478g O
For O:  100%  100% = 28.62% O
 g total  8.657g
Sum of percentages: 99.99%
 % composition tells us mass of each element
in 100.00 g of substance
 In 100.00 g of our liquid
 60.26 g C, 11.11 g H & 28.62 g O
34
 Your Turn!
A sample was analyzed and found to contain
0.1417 g nitrogen and 0.4045 g oxygen.
What is the percentage composition of this
compound?
1. Calculate total mass of sample
Total sample mass = 0.1417 g + 0.4045 g =
0.5462 g
 gN   0.1417g N 
2. 
 100%% Composition
 Calculate  100
of %
N = 25.94% N
 g total  0.5462g 

 gO   0.4045g O 
3. Calculate
 100% Composition
   100
of O% = 74.06% O
 g total  0.5462g 
35
 Percent Compositions &
Chemical Identity
Theoretical or Calculated % Composition
 Calculated from molecular or ionic formula.
 Lets you distinguish between multiple
compounds formed from the same 2 elements
 If experimental percent composition is
known
 Calculate Theoretical % Composition from
proposed Chemical Formula
 Compare with experimental composition
Ex. N & O form multiple compounds
 N2O, NO, NO2, N2O3, N2O4, & N2O5
36
Ex. Using Percent Composition
Are the mass percentages 30.54% N &
69.46% O consistent with the formula N2O4?
Procedure:
1. Assume 1 mole of compound
2. Subscripts tell how many moles of each
element are present
 2 mol N & 4 mol O
3. Use molar masses of elements to
determine mass of each element in 1 mole
 Molar Mass of N2O4 = 92.14 g N2O4 / 1 mol
4. Calculate % by mass of each element
37
 Ex. Using Percent Composition
14.07g N(cont)
2 molN  = 28.14 g N
1 molN
16.00g O
4 molO  = 64.00 g O
1 molO
28.14 g N
%N  100% = 30.54% N in N2O4
92.14g N2O4
64.00g O
%O  100% = 69.46% N in N2O4
92.14g N2O4
 The experimental values match the
theoretical percentages for the formula
N2O4. 38
 Your Turn
If a sample containing only phosphorous &
oxygen has percent composition 56.34% P &
43.66% O, is this P44
Omol
10? P  1 mol P4O10

A. Yes 10 mol O  1 mol P4O10

B. No 4 mol P = 4  30.97 g/mol P = 123.9 g P

10 mol O = 10 16.00 g/mol O = 160.0 g O
1 mol P4O10 = 283.9 g P4O10

123.9g P
%P  100% = 43.64 % P
283.9g P4O10
160.0g O
%O  100% = 56.36 % O
283.9g P4O10
39
 Determining Empirical &
Molecular Formulas
 When making or isolating new compounds
one must characterize them to determine
structure &
Molecular Formula
 Exact composition of one molecule
 Exact whole # ratio of atoms of each element
in molecule
Empirical Formula
 Simplest ratio of atoms of each element in
compound
 glucose Empirical
Obtained from formula analysis
experimental CH2O of
compoundMolecular formula C6H12O6 40
 Three Ways to Calculate
Empirical Formulas
1. From Masses of Elements
Ex. 2.448 g sample of which 1.771 g is Fe and
0.677 g is O.
2. From Percentage Composition
Ex. 43.64 % P and 56.36 % O.
3. From Combustion Data
 Given masses of combustion products
Ex. The combustion of a 5.217 g sample of a
compound of C, H, and O in pure oxygen gave
7.406 g CO2 and 4.512 g of H2O.
41
 Strategy for Determining
Empirical Formulas
1. Determine mass in g of each element
2. Convert mass in g to moles
3. Divide all quantities by smallest number of
moles to get smallest ratio of moles
4. Convert any non-integers into integer
numbers.
 If number ends in decimal equivalent of
fraction, multiply all quantities by least
common denominator
 Otherwise, round numbers to nearest integers
42
 1. Empirical Formula from Mass
Data
When a 0.1156 g sample of a compound was
analyzed, it was found to contain 0.04470 g of C,
0.01875 g of H, and 0.05215 g of N. Calculate the
empirical formula of this compound.
Step 1: Calculate moles of each substance
1 molC
0.04470g C   3.722  103 mol C
12.011 g C
1 molH
0.01875g H  1.860  102 mol H
1.008g H
1 molN
0.05215g N   3.723  103 mol N
14.0067g N
43
1. Empirical Formula from Mass
Data
Step 2: Select the smallest # of moles.
 Lowest is 3.722 x 10–3 mole
Mole Integer
3
 C= 3 . 722 10 mol C ratio ratio
3
 1.000 =1
3.722 10 mol C
2
 H= 1 . 860 10 mol H
3
 4.997 =5
3.722 10 mol C
3.723 10  3 mol N
N= 3
 1.000 =1
3.722 10 mol C
Step 3: Divide all # of moles by the smallest one

Empirical formula = CH5N

44
 Empirical Formula from Mass
Composition
One of the compounds of iron and oxygen,
“black iron oxide,” occurs naturally in the
mineral magnetite. When a 2.448 g sample was
analyzed it was found to have 1.771 g of Fe and
0.677 g of O. Calculate the empirical formula of
this compound.
Assembling the tools:
1 mol Fe = 55.845 g Fe 1 mol O =
16.00 g O 1 molFe
1.771g Fe  0.03171 mol Fe
1. Calculate55.485
molesgof
Feeach substance
1 molO
0.677g O  0.0423 mol O
16.00g O
45
 1. Empirical Formula from Mass
Data #mol to get
2. Divide both by smallest
smallest whole # ratio.
0.03171molFe
=1.000 Fe× 3 = 3.000 Fe
0.03171molFe
0.0423molO
=1.33 O× 3 = 3.99 O
0.03171molFe
Fe 0.03171O 0.0423 Fe1.00O1.33
Or
0.03171 0.03171
Fe(1.003)O(1.333) Fe3O3.99
Empirical Formula = Fe3O4
46
 2. Empirical Formula from %
Composition
 New compounds are characterized by
elemental analysis, from which the
percentage composition can be obtained
 Use percentage composition data to
calculate empirical formula
 Must convert % composition to grams
 Assume 100.00 g sample
 Convenient
 Sum of % composition = 100%
 Sum of masses of each element = 100 g
47
 2. Empirical Formula from %
Composition
Calculate the empirical formula of a compound
whose % composition data is 43.64 % P and
56.36 % O. If the molar mass is determined to
be 283.9 g/mol, what is the molecular formula?
Step 1: Assume 100 g of compound.
43.64 g P 1 mol P = 30.97 g
56.36 g O 1 mol O = 16.00 g
1 molP
43.64g P  = 1.409 mol P
30.97g P
1 molO
56.36 g O  = 3.523 mol P
16.00 g O
48
 2. Empirical Formula from %
Composition
Step 2: Divide by smallest number of moles
1.409 mol P
1.000  2 = 2
1.409 mol P
3.523 mol O
2.500  2 = 5
1.409 mol P
Step 3: Multiple by n to get smallest integer ratio
Here n = 2
Empirical formula = P2O5

49
 3. Empirical Formulas from
Indirect Analysis:
 In practice, compounds are not broken
down into elements, but are changed into
other compounds whose formula is known.
Combustion Analysis
 Compounds containing carbon, hydrogen,
& oxygen, can be burned completely in
pure oxygen gas
 Only carbon dioxide & water are produced
Ex. Combustion of methanol (CH3OH)
2CH3OH + 3O2  2CO2 + 4H2O
50
 What is the percent composition of Carbon in glucose
molecule (C6H12O6)?
A)40 % B) 6.7 % C) 53.3 % D) 8.9 %

 What is the empirical formula of a compound that

contains 27.27% C and 72.73% O? MM of C = 12.0
g/mol, MM of O = 16.0 g/mol.
A)CO B) CO2 C) CO3 D) CO4

 A compound that is composed of Sulfur and Oxygen. If

this compound contains 57.1% S, what is the empirical
formula of the compound?

51
Combustion Analysis

Classic

Modern CHN analysis

52
 3. Empirical Formulas from
Indirect Analysis:
 Carbon dioxide & water separated & weighed
separately
 All C ends up as CO2
 All H ends up as H2O
 Mass of C can be derived from amount of CO2
 mass CO2  mol CO2  mol C  mass C
 Mass of H can be derived from amount of H2O
 mass H2O  mol H2O  mol H  mass H
 Mass of oxygen is obtained by difference
mass O = mass sample – (mass C + mass H)
53
 Ex. Indirect or Combustion
The combustion of Analysis
a 5.217 g sample of a
compound of C, H, and O in pure oxygen gave
7.406 g CO2 and 4.512 g of H2O. Calculate the
empirical formula of the compound.

C H O CO2
MM (g/mol) 12.011 1.008 15.999 44.01
1. Calculate mass of C from mass of CO2.
mass CO2  mole CO2  mole C  mass C
 1 molCO2   1 molC   12.011g C 
7.406g CO2      
 44.01g CO2   1 molCO2   1 molC 
= 2.021 g C
54
 Ex. Indirect or Combustion
The combustion ofAnalysis
a 5.217 g sample of a
compound of C, H, and O gave 7.406 g CO2
and 4.512 g of H2O. Calculate the empirical
formula of the compound.
2. Calculate mass of H from mass of H2O.
mass H2O  mol H2O  mol H  mass H
 1 molH2O   2 molH   1.008g H 
4.512g H2O      
 18.015g H2O   1 molH2O   1 molH 
= 0.5049 g H
3. Calculate mass of O from difference.
5.217 g sample – 2.021 g C – 0.5049 g H = 2.691 g O
55
 Ex. Indirect or Combustion
Analysis
C H O
MM 12.011 1.008 15.999
g 2.021 0.5049 2.691
4. Calculate mol of each element
gC 2.021g
molC   = 0.1683 mol C
MMC 12.011g/mol
gH 0.5049g
molH   = 0.5009 mol H
MMH 1.008g/mol
gO 2.691g
molO   = 0.1682 mol O
MMO 15.999g/mol
56
 Ex. Indirect or Combustion
Analysis
 Preliminary empirical formula
 C0.1683H0.5009O0.1682
5. Calculate mol ratio of each element
C 0.1683H0.5009O 0.1682 = C H O
1.00 2.97 1.00
0.1682 0.1682 0.1682

 Since all values are close to integers, round to

Empirical Formula = CH3O

57
 Determining Molecular
 Formulas
Empirical formula
 Accepted formula unit for ionic compounds
 Molecular formula
 Preferred for molecular compounds
 In some cases molecular & empirical
formulas are the same
 When they are different, & the subscripts
of molecular formula are integer multiples
of those in empirical formula
 If empirical formula is AxBy
 Molecular formula will be An×xBn×y
58
 Determining Molecular
Need molecular Formula
mass & empirical formula
 Calculate ratio of molecular mass to mass
predicted by empirical formula & round to
nearest integermolecularmass
n
empiricalformulamass

Ex. Glucose
Molecular mass is 180.16 g/mol
Empirical formula = CH2O
180.16
Empirical formula g = 30.03 g/mol
mass
n 6
30.03 g
Molecular formula = C6H12O6
59
 Learning Check
The empirical formula of a compound
containing phosphorous and oxygen was found
to be P2O5. If the molar mass is determined to
be 283.9 g/mol, what is the molecular formula?
Step 1: Calculate empirical mass
empiricalmassP2O5  2 massP  5 massO
 2 30.97 g/mol  5 16.00 g/mol
 61.94  80.00 g/mol
141.94 g/molP2O5
Step 2: Calculate ratio of molecular to empirical mass
283.9 g / mol
n =2 Molecular formula = P4O10
141.94 g/mol
60
 Your Turn!
The empirical formula of hydrazine is NH2,
and its molecular mass is 32.0. What is its
molecular formula?
Molar mass of NH2 =
A. NH2
(1×14.01)g + (2×1.008)g = 16.017g
B. N2H4
n = (32.0/16.02) = 2
C. N3H6
D. N4H8
E. N1.5H3
Atomic Mass: N:14.007; H:1.008; O:15.999

61
Balanced Chemical Equations
 Useful tool for problem solving
 Prediction of reactants and products
 All atoms present in reactants must also be
present among products.
 Coefficients are multipliers that are used to
balance equations
 Two step process
[Link] unbalanced equation
 Given products & reactants
 Organize with plus signs & arrow
[Link] coefficients to get equal numbers of
each kind of atom on both sides of arrow.
62
 Guidelines for Balancing
Equations
1. Start balancing with the most complicated
formula first.
 Elements, particularly H2 & O2, should be left
until the end.
2. Balance atoms that appear in only two
formulas: one as a reactant & the other as
a product.
 Leave elements that appear in three or more
formulas until later.
3. Balance as a group those polyatomic ions
that appear unchanged on both sides of
the arrow.
63
 Balancing Equations
 Use the inspection method
Step 1. Write unbalanced equation
Zn(s) + HCl(aq)  ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
unbalanced
Step 2. Adjust coefficients to balance numbers
of each kind of atom on both sides of arrow.
 Since ZnCl2 has 2Cl on the product side, 2HCl on
reactant side is needed to balance the equation.
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq)  ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
 1 Zn each side
 2 H each side
 So balanced 64
 Learning Check: Balancing
Equations
AgNO3(aq) + Na3PO 4(aq)  Ag3PO4(s) + NaNO3(aq)
 Count atoms
Reactants Products
1 Ag 3 Ag
3 Na 1 Na
 Add in coefficients by multiplying Ag & Na by 3 to
get 3 of each on both sides
3AgNO3(aq) + Na3PO4(aq)  Ag3PO4(s) + 3NaNO3(aq)
 Now check polyatomic ions
3 NO3 3 NO3
1 PO43 1 PO43
 Balanced
65
 Balance by Inspection
__C3H8(g) + __O2(g)  __CO2(g) + __H2O(ℓ)
Assume 1 in front of C3H8
3C 1C  3
8H 2H  4
1C3H8(g) + __O2(g)  3CO2(g) + 4H2O(ℓ)
2O  5 =10 O = (3  2) + 4 = 10
8H H=24=8
1C3H8(g) + 5O2(g)  3CO2(g) + 4H2O(ℓ)

66
 Your Turn!
Balance each of the following equations.
What are the coefficients in front of each compound

1 Ba(OH)2(aq) +__
__ 1 Na2SO4(aq) →1 __ BaSO4(s) 2
+ __
NaOH(aq)

2
___KClO 2 3
3(s) → ___KCl(s) +___ O2(g)

2 3PO4(aq) + __
__H 3 Ba(OH)2(aq) → 1__Ba3(PO4)2(s) 6
+
__H2O(ℓ)

67
 Using Balanced Equations:
Reaction Stoichiometry
 Balanced equation
 Critical link between substances involved in
chemical reactions
 Gives relationship between amounts of reactants
used & amounts of products likely to be formed
 Numeric coefficient tells us
 The mole ratios for reactions
 How many individual particles are needed in
reaction on microscopic level
 How many moles are necessary on macroscopic
level
68
 Stoichiometric Ratios
 Consider the reaction
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
 Could be read as:
“When 1 molecule of nitrogen reacts with 3
molecules of hydrogen, 2 molecules of
ammonia are formed.”
Molecular relationships
1 molecule N2  2 molecule NH3
3 molecule H2  2 molecule NH3
1 molecule N2  3 molecule H2
69
 Stoichiometric Ratios
 Consider the reaction
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
 Could also be read as:
“When 1 mole of nitrogen reacts with 3 moles
of hydrogen, 2 moles of ammonia are formed.”
 Molar relationships
1 mole N2  2 mole NH3
3 mole H2  2 mole NH3
1 mole N2  3 mole H2

70
 Using Stoichiometric Ratios
Ex. For the reaction N2 + 3 H2 → 2NH3, how
many moles of N2 are used when 2.3 moles
of NH3 are produced?
 Assembling the tools
 2 moles NH3 = 1 mole N2
 2.3 mole NH3 = ? moles N2
 1 molN2 
2.3 molNH3   = 1.2 mol N2
 2 molNH3 

71
 Your Turn!
If 0.575 mole of CO2 is produced by the
combustion of propane, C3H8, how many moles
of oxygen are consumed? The balanced
equation is
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
Assembling the tools
A. 0.575 mole  0.575 mole CO2 = ? moles
B. 2.88 mole O2
C. 0.192 mole  3 moles CO = 5 mole O
2 2
D. 0.958 mole
E. 0.345 mole 5 molO2 
0.575 molCO2   = 0.958 mol O2
 3 molCO2 
72
 Mass-to-Mass Conversions
 Most common stoichiometric conversions
that chemists use involve converting mass of
one substance to mass of another.

 Use molar mass A to convert grams A to

moles A
 Use chemical equations to relate moles A to
moles B
 Use molar mass B to convert to moles B to
grams B 73
 Using Balanced Equation to
Determine Stoichiometry
Ex. What mass of O2 will react with 96.1 g of
propane (C3H8) gas, to form gaseous carbon
dioxide & water?
Strategy
1. Write the balanced equation
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g)  3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
2. Assemble the tools
96.1 g C3H8  moles C3H8  moles O2  g O2
1 mol C3H8 = 44.1 g C3H8
1 mol O2 = 32.00 g O2
1 mol C3H8 = 5 mol O2
74
 Using Balanced Equation to
Determine Stoichiometry
Ex. What mass of O2 will react with 96.1 g of
propane in a complete combustion?
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g)  3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
3. Assemble conversions so units cancel
correctly 1 molC3H8 5 molO2 32.0 g O2
96.1 g C3H8   
44.1 g C3H8 1 molC3H8 1 molO2

= 349 g of O2 are needed

75
 Your Turn!
How many grams of Al2O3 are produced when
41.5 g Al react?
2Al(s) + Fe2O3(s) → Al2O3(s) + 2Fe(ℓ)
A. 78.4 g
B. 157 g
C. 314 g
D. 22.0 g
E. 11.0 g
 1 molAl   1 molAl2O3   101.96 g Al2O3 
41.5 g Al      
 26.98g Al  2 molAl   1 molAl2O3 

= 78.4 g Al2O3
76
 Limiting Reactant
 Reactant that is completely used up in the
reaction
 Present in lower # of moles
 It determines the amount of product
produced
 For this reaction = ethylene
Excess reactant
 Reactant that has some amount left over
at end
 Present in higher # of moles
 For this reaction = water 77
 Limiting Reactant
1. Calculations
Write the balanced equation.
2. Identify the limiting reagent.
 Calculate amount of reactant B needed to
react with reactant B
mass mol mol Mass
reacta reactan reactan reactan
nt A tA tB tB
have need
 Compare amount of B you need with amount
of B you actually have.
 If need more B than you have, then B is
limiting
 If need less B than you have, then A is limiting
78
 Limiting Reactant
3. Calculations
Calculate mass of desired product, using
amount of limiting reactant & mole
ratios.
mass mol mol mass
limitin limiting product product
g reactan
reacta t
nt

79
 Ex. Limiting Reactant
Calculation
How many grams of NO can form when 30.0 g
NH3 and 40.0 g O2 react according to:
4 NH3 + 5 O2  4 NO + 6 H2O
Solution: Step 1
mass NH3  mole NH3  mole O2  mass O2
Assembling the tools Only have 40.0 g
 1 mol NH3 = 17.03 g O2, O2 limiting
 1 mol O2 = 32.00 g reactant
 4 mol NH 5
13mol mol O5
NH 2 molO2 32.00g O2
3
30.0 g NH3   
17.03gNH3 4 molNH3 1 molO2
= 70.5 g O2 needed
80
 Ex. Limiting Reactant
Calculation
How many grams of NO can form when 30.0 g
NH3 and 40.0 g O2 react according to:
4 NH3 + 5 O2  4 NO + 6 H2O
Solution: Step 2
mass O2  mole O2  mole NO  mass NO
Assembling the tools Can only form 30.0 g NO.
 1 mol O2 = 32.00 g
 1 mol NO = 30.01 g
 5 mol O2  4 mol NO
1 molO2 4 molNO 30.01g NO
40.0 g O2   
32.00g O2 5 molO2 1 molNO
= 30.0 g NO formed
81
 Your Turn!
If 18.1 g NH3 is reacted with 90.4 g CuO, what is
the maximum amount of Cu metal that can be
formed?
2NH3(g) + 3CuO(s)  N2(g) + 3Cu(s) +
3H2O(g)
(MM) (17.03) 18(79.55) 1 mol NH3
(28.01) 3 mol CuO 79 .55 g CuO
.1 g NH3   (64.55)  (18.02)
17.03 g NH3 2 mol NH3 1 mol CuO
(g/mol)
127 g CuO needed.
A. 127 g Only have 90.4g so CuO limiting
B. 103 g 1 mol CuO 3 mol Cu 63.546 g Cu
90.4 g CuO   
C. 72.2 g 79.55 g CuO 3 mol CuO 1 mol Cu
D. 108 g 72.2 g Cu can be formed
E. 56.5 g 82
 Reaction Yield
 In many experiments, the amount of product
is less than expected
 Losses occur for several reasons
 Mechanical issues – sticks to glassware
 Evaporation of volatile (low boiling) products.
 Some solid remains in solution
 Competing reactions & formation of by-
products.
 Main reaction:
 2 P(s) + 3 Cl2(g)  2 PCl3(ℓ)
 Competing reaction:
 PCl3(ℓ) + Cl2(g)  PCl5(s) By-product 83
 Theoretical vs. Actual Yield
 Theoretical Yield
 Amount of product that must be obtained if
no losses occur.
 Amount of product formed if all of limiting
reagent is consumed.
 Actual Yield
 Amount of product that is actually isolated at
end of reaction.
 Amount obtained experimentally
 How much is obtained in mass units or in
moles.

84
 Percentage Yield
Useful to calculate % yield.
Percent yield
 Relates the actual yield to the theoretical
yield
 It is calculated as:
 actualyield 
percentageyield   100
 theoretica
l yield

Ex. If a cookie recipe predicts a yield of 36

cookies and yet only 24 are obtained, what
ispercentage
the % yield?  24
yield   100  67%
 36
85
Ex. Percentage Yield Calculation
When 18.1 g NH3 and 90.4 g CuO are
reacted, the theoretical yield is 72.2 g Cu.
The actual yield is 58.3 g Cu. What is the
percent yield?
2NH3(g) + 3CuO(s)  N2(g) + 3Cu(s) + 3H2O(g)
58.3g Cu
% yield 100% = 80.7%
72.2g Cu

86
 Learning Check: Percentage
Yield of solid
A chemist set up a synthesis
phosphorus trichloride by mixing 12.0 g of solid
phosphorus with 35.0 g chlorine gas and
obtained 42.4 g of solid phosphorus trichloride.
Calculate the percentage yield of this
compound.
Analysis:
Write balanced equation
P(s) + Cl2(g)  PCl3(s)
Determine Determine Calculate
Limiting Theoretical Percentage
Reagent Yield Yield

87
 Learning Check: Percentage
Yield
Assembling the Tools:
 1 mol P = 30.97 g P
 1 mol Cl2 = 70.90 g Cl2
 3 mol Cl2 ⇔ 2 mol P
Solution
[Link] Limiting Reactant
1 molP 3 molCl2 70.90g Cl2
12.0 g P    = 41.2 g Cl2
30.97g P 2 molP 1 molCl2

 But you only have 35.0 g Cl2, so Cl2 is limiting

reactant
88
 Learning Check: Percentage
Solution Yield
2. Determine Theoretical Yield
1 molCl2 2 molPCl3 137.32g PCl3
35.0 g Cl2   
70.90g Cl2 3 molCl2 1 molPCl3

= 45.2 g PCl3
3. Determine Percentage Yield
 Actual yield = 42.4 g
 42.2g PCl3 
yield 
percentage  100 = 93.8 %
 45.2g PCl3 
89
 Your Turn!
When 6.40 g of CH3OH was mixed with 10.2 g of
O2 and ignited, 6.12 g of CO2 was obtained.
What was the percentage yield of CO2?
2CH3OH + 3O2  2CO2 + 4H2O
MM(g/mol) (32.04) (32.00) (44.01)
(18.02) 6.40 g CH3OH
1 molCH3OH

3 molCO2

32.00g O2
32.04g CH3OH 2 molCH3OH 1 molO2
A. 6.12%
=9.59 g O2 needed; CH3OH limiting
B. 8.79% 1 molCH3OH 2 molCO2 44.01g CO2
6.40 g CH3OH  
C. 100% 32.04g CH3OH 2 molCH3OH 1 molCO2
D. 142% = 8.79 g CO2 in theory
E. 69.6% 6.12g CH3OHactual100%  69.6%
8.79g CH3OH theory
90
Stoichiometry Summary

91