Thermal Inspection

INTRODUCTION
Thermal Inspection comprises all methods in which
heat-sensing devices are used to measure
temperature variations in components, structures,
systems or physical processes. Thermal methods can
be useful in the detection of subsurface flaws or
voids provided the depth of the flaw is not large
compared to diameter. Thermal inspection is
applicable to complex shapes or assemblies of similar
or dissimilar materials and can be used in the one-
sided inspection of objects.
PRINCIPLES OF THERMAL INSPECTION:-The basic
principle of Thermal inspection involves the
measurement or mapping of surface temperatures
when heat flows from to, or through a test object.
Temperature differentials on a surface or changes in
surface temperature with time are related to heat
flow patterns and can be used to detect flaws or to
determine the heat transfer characteristics of a test
body. For example during the operation of a heating
system a hot spot detected at a joint in a heating
duct may be caused by a hot air leak. Generally the
larger the imperfection and the closer it is to the
surface, the greater the temperature differential.
HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS:-Heat will flow from
hot to cold within an object by conduction and
between an object and its surroundings by
conduction, convection and radiation. Within a solid
or liquid conduction results from the random
vibrations of individual atoms or molecules that is
transferred via the atomic bonding to neighbouring
atoms or molecules. When a gas or liquid flows over
a solid heat is transferred by convection. This occurs
from the collisions between the atoms or molecules
of the gas or liquid with the surface as well as the
transport of the gas or liquid to and from the
surface.
Next mechanism is Radiation. Electromagnetic
radiation is emitted from a heated body when
energy state, Both the intensity and wavelength of
the radiation depend on the temperature of the
surface atoms.
MATERIAL HEAT TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:-The
material characteristics that affect conduction and
convection are:-
Specific heat 'C' that is the amount of heat that a mass
of material absorbs for given temperature interval.
Density  is the mass per unit volume of the material.
Thermal conductivity K, is the amount of heat that
flows in a given direction when there is a temperature
difference across the material in that direction.
Thermal diffusivity  is the speed at which the heat
flows away from a region of higher temperature to
the surrounding material.
Convection heat transfer coefficient, 'h' is a measure
of how efficiently heat is exchanged between a
surface and a flowing gas.
Temperature T is a measure of the heat energy
contained at such point in the test object
THERMAL INSPECTION EQUIPMENT:- The
temperature sensors used in thermal inspection can
be separated into two categories,
(1) Non contact temperature sensors
(2) Contact temperature sensors.

(i) Non Contact Temperature Sensors:-Non Contact

temperature sensors depend on the thermally
generated electromagnetic radiation from the
surface of the test object. At moderate
temperatures, the energy is predominately in the
infrared region. Therefore non-contact
measurements in thermal inspection primarily
involve the use of infrared sensors.
(a) Infrared Imaging Equipment: This is available with a
wide range of capabilities. The simplest systems are
responsive to the near infrared portion of the optical
spectrum. Silicon sensors provide sensitivity for
temperature above 425°C. While lead sulphide
sensors respond to temperatures above 200°C.
(b) Hand-held Scanners: are portable imaging system
capable of responding in the far infrared portion of
the optical spectrum (wavelength of 8-12 µm). This
range is emitted by objects at or near room
temperature. They can be useful for detecting hot
spots such as overheating components, thermal run
away in an electronic circuit. They can not be used for
measurement of local temperature differences
because Poor imaging qualities.
(c) High-Resolution infrared imaging Sytems are
required for most part inspection applications. These
imaging systems will use either a gray scale or a color
scale corrected to temperature ranges to depict the
temperature distribution within the image.
(d)Thermal wave interferometer systems Combine
modulated laser excitation with rapid phase
amplitude sensing that can be scanned across a
surface to produce an image one application of this
system in the inspection of plasma sprayed coating.
(e) Radiometers & Pyrometers:- Are devices for
measuring radiation or spot or line temperatures.
Radiometers because they usually have slow response
times, are most useful for monitoring constant or
slowly varying temperatures. Pyrometers are used as
non-contacting type temperature sensors for
temperatures from 0° to 2000°C.
(ii) Contact Temperature Sensors:-Contact
temperature sensors include material coatings and
thermoelectric devices. Material coatings are
relatively low in cost and simple to apply but they may
have the disadvantage of providing qualitative
temperature measurements Another disadvantage of
coating is that they may change the thermal
characteristics of the surface.
a) Cholesteric Liquid Crystals:- are grease like
substances that can be blended to produce
compounds having color transition ranges at
temperatures from 20 to 250°[Link] crystals can be
selected to respond in a temperature differentials of 1
to 50°C.
When illuminated with white light while in their color
response range, liquid crystals will scatter the light
into its component colors. Liquid are generally
colorless. The crystals can be applied by pouring,
painting, spraying or dipping. The applied film of
liquid crystals must be of uniform thickness to prevent
color irregularities caused by thickness differences
rather than temperature difference. A good film
thickness is about 0.02 mm.
b) Thermally quenched phosphors: are Organic
Compounds that emit visible light when excited by
ultraviolet light. The brightness of a phosphor is
inversely proportional with temperature over a range
from room temperature to about 400°C.
c) Other Coatings:- Heat sensitive paints, thermo
chromic compounds, heat sensitive papers and
meltable frosts and wax like substances can also be
used to indicate surface temperatures. These coatings
are useful for determining when a surface has
exceeded a certain temperature. A few of the coatings
such as the photochromic paints and thermo chromic
compounds have reversible changes that can be used
to evaluate indications by retesting. Each of the
coatings can be directly applied on to the surface.
(iii) Thermo Electric Devices:-They are widely used for
measuring temperature. Typical thermo electric
devices are thermocouples, thermopiles and
thermistors. Thermocouples Consist of a pair of
junctions of two different metals. As the temperature
of one of the junctions is raised, an electro motive
force (voltage) relative to the other (reference)
junction is produced that is proportional to the
temperature difference between the two junctions.
Thermocouples can be placed in contact with the
surface can be placed in contact with the surface of
the subject or can be used near the surface to
measure the air temperature.
Thermopiles are multiple thermocouple used
electrically in series to increase the output voltage.
Although thermopiles have a greater output than
individual thermocouples, they also have a slower
response time because of the increased mass.
Thermopiles are used as sensing element in radio
meters.
Thermistors: are electrical semiconductors that use
changes in electrical resistance to measure
temperature. Thermistors are usually used in a bridge
circuit with one of the thermistors maintained at a
known and stable temperature.
RECORDING EQUIPMENT:-When high-resolution
imaging-systems are used, recording equipment such
as a videotape recorder is extremely useful for
analyzing transient effects or for reviewing
techniques. Photographic techniques can also be used
to record the thermal images of specimens.
TEMPERATURE CALIBRATION SOURCES:-Temperature
Calibration sources are needed for all devices used to
measure temperatures. Some systems have built-in or
internal calibration sources. External sources can vary
from very simple devices such as a container of ice
and water or boiling water to thermocouple
controlled heated plates that can be adjusted to the
designed temperature.
INSPECTION METHOD:-(a) Steady State Methods are
used to detect anomalies where temperatures change
very little with time. Many of the thermally active
objects or processes can be observed under steady
state condition. For eg, a steam line that regularly
carries steam can be inspected for insulation defects
by looking for hot spots. A honeycomb panel can be
inspected for liquid intrusion or disbonds by heating
one side and cooling the opposite side. The cooled
side is viewed for the inspection. In general anomalies
must be large, must be close to the surface or must
create large temperature differences to be detectable
with steady state methods .
b) Time based methods are used to detect anomalies
where temperatures change during the inspection.
The change may be actively or passively produced.
For eg. a hot forging exiting a forging press or die will
cool to room temperature and will produce a
temperature difference at a forging lap for only a
short time.
(c)Image Interpretation: Is the most different part of
many thermal inspection applications. Strong
indications with large temperature differences are
the easiest to interpret. An anomaly close to the
surface will produce a stronger indication than an
identical anomaly far from the surface.
(d) Quantitative Methods: In general thermographic
methods do not lendthemselves to the rapid
derivation of quantitative data on anamolies. One
exception is the case of thin Coatings, in which
anomaly size and shape correspond very closely to
the size and shape of infrared images or contact
coating indications from optimized inspection.
Quantitative estimates of very thin coating thickness
are possible with proper time based techniques.
There are some cases in which Quantification from
thermal indicators is always desirable. For eg. in a
process producing hot specimens, rapid feedback may
be necessary because time is too short to wait for the
specimens to cool for a subsequent inspection. Most
Quantitative methods are still under development. All
the quantitative methods must be tailored to specific
application.
e) Reference Standards:- are as necessary for thermal
methods as they are for other NDE methods.
Standards ensure consistent performance of the
thermal activation methods and the temperature
sensing materials or equipment. Reference Standards
are essential for quantitative techniques. Multiple
time based Measurements:- are needed to establish
correlations between a response to thermal activation
and anomaly size and location. For pulsed or
modulated thermal excitation, the time delay of the
temperature response can be recorded as a Relative
Phase change, which may be related to a parameter
such as coating coating thickness or delamination
depth.
Quantitative interpretation:- rules are needed before
the time-based data can be used in an evaluation. A
simple example is the phase change response as a
function of coating thickness on a substrate. For a
three variable situation in which void thickness, width
and depth beneath a surface are determined, at least
three time based measurements are needed. The
resulting calculations are complicated and can be
performed only with computer assistance.
APPLICATIONS: The applications of thermal Inspection
have been divided into following categories:-
1. Hot & Cold equipment
2. Process Control
3. Liquid intrusion
4. Disbonds, delaminations & voids
5. Electronic devices
6. Research
1. Hot & Cold equipment: Many types of equipment
that conduct orgenerate heat during operation are
likely candidates for thermographic methods.
Heating ducts, steam lines, Radiators, heat
exchangers, exhaust Systems (Chimneys) and
refrigeration systems are heat transfer devices for
which thermal inspection techniques can be used
during periodic inspection of leaks, clogged
passages, and missing or defective insulation.
Furnaces, ovens, salt baths, autoclaves, reaction
stacks, hot manufacturing equipments (process &
rolling mills) may also require periodic inspection
for unnecessary heat losses.
Other equipment such as bearings, slides, brakes,
transmitting antennas and electrical equipment,
generates heat during operations. Localized hot areas
are usually a symptom of a mechanical or electrical
malfunction and early detection provides the
opportunity to replace the defective components
during regularly scheduled maintenance or before
more serious damage occurs.
(2) Process controls:- Thermal inspection methods
are appropriate for certain processes in which the
products are above room temperature as they exit a
process. Examples are heat-set & heat shaped
plastics, hot worked metal components hot coating
process & weld components. Components can be
monitored as they exit the process. Abnormal
temperatures would indicate an out of control
process and corrections can be made to prevent the
production of large number of defective
(3) Liquid Intrusion:- Water or fuel intrusion in honey
comb structure is a parts significant problem for
aircraft maintenance. Inspections can be performed
immediately after flight to detect such liquids as the
structure warms to ambient temperature. Water
intrusions in roofs can also be detected in the evening
as ambient temperature drops. This method has been
reported to be success in detecting leaks & retained
moisture in insulation.
(4) Disbonds, Delaminations & Voids:- Modern
fabrication techniques relayheavily on the use of
bonding for structures and protective coatings.
Thermal techniques are good candidates for the
detection of disbonds, delaminations and voids in
thin laminates and protective coatings. But as the
specimen thickness increases, thermal inspection
becomes less effective because the Possible depth of
the defect may be greater.
.
(5) Electronic Devices:- Typically fail by local over
heating, corrosion or poor solder joints. Infrared
microscopes have been used to inspect
microelectronics for over heating and laser generated
heat has been used to inspect circuit board solder
joints. More conventional thermal inspection
methods have been used to inspect solder joints
during cool down after fabrication or during circuit
operation. Solar cells have also been screened for
defects with thermal techniques.
(6) Research: Several investigators have used the heat
generated by permanent deformation to track the
onset of failure in tensile over loading and crack
propagation in fatigue testing. Samples of
components can be loaded to failure under
thermographic monitoring to pinpoint the origin and
propagation of deformation