Chapter 16b

Reproduction Systems - Females

The female reproductive system functions to make eggs,
provide areas for fertilization & gestation
 Mammary glands are only function in females to produce milk
• Areola = central pigmented area
• Nipple = protruding central area of areola
• Alveolar glands = produce milk when a woman is lactating
• Lactiferous ducts = tubes that allow milk to be released
• Hormonal regulation:
– Estrogens = increase in size
– Prolactin = produce milk
– Oxytocin = release milk
Mammograms are X-rays to detect breast cancer

• Recommendations:
– Every 2 years for women between 40 and 49 years old
– Yearly thereafter
 There are several parts of the female external genitalia
• Mons pubis – round, fatty area overlying the pubic symphysis
• Labia majora – hair covered skin fold
• Labia minora – delicate, hairless skin folds
• Vestibule - enclosed by labia majora; contains external openings of the urethra & vagina
• Greater vestibular glands-found on each side of the vagina; secretes lubricant during
intercourse
• Clitoris –composed of sensitive erectile tissue hooded by the prepuce;
• Urethral orifice - end of the urethra, which releases urine
• Vaginal orifice- external opening of the vagina
– Hymen = membrane that partially covers the vaginal opening , until it is ruptured.
• Perineum-diamond-shaped region between the pubic arch and coccyx
 Vagina serves as the birth canal, provides a passageway for
menstrual flow, and receives the penis during intercourse
• Extends from cervix (bottom of uterus) to exterior of body
• Located between bladder and rectum
– The urethra is embedded in the anterior wall
• Hymen—partially closes the vagina until it is ruptured
 Uterus is a hollow, thick-walled organ located in the
pelvis that receives a fertilized egg
• Body – major portion of the uterus
– Uterine wall - Composed of three layers
• Perimetrium – outermost layer
• Myometrium – middle layer; interlacing layers of smooth muscle
• Endometrium – innermost lining; shed if not pregnant; allows for implantation
• Fundus – rounded superior region where fallopian tube attach tubes
• Cervix – narrow neck which projects into the vagina
 Endometriosis is the presence of
endometrial tissue outside the uterus
• Can be found on ovaries, ligaments,
colon, lungs
• Responds to cyclic hormonal variations
– Grows and secretes then
degenerates, sheds and bleeds
– Blood irritating to tissues =
inflammation and pain
– Recurs with every cycle 
eventually scar tissues develop
• Causes adhesions and
obstruction
Cervical cancer can be detected by a Pap smear
• Pap smear = tissue sample taken from cervix to screen for abnormal cells
• Strongly linked to STIs!!
– Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2)
– Human papillomavirus (HPV)
• Other risk factors
– Multiple sex partners
– Promiscuous partners
– Sexual intercourse in early teen years
– STIs
• Environmental factors such as smoking can predispose women
 Ovaries make the eggs and secrete estrogens &
progesterone
• Paired organs on each side of the uterus
• Held in place by several ligaments
– Suspensory ligaments—secure ovary to lateral walls of the pelvis
– Ovarian ligaments—attach one end of ovary to uterus
– Broad ligament—a fold of the peritoneum, encloses suspensory
ligament
 Ovarian cysts are fluid-filled sacs that
cover the ovary
• May become large enough to cause discomfort,
urinary retention, or menstrual irregularity
– Bleeding if ruptures
• Cause even more serious inflammation
– Risk of torsion of the ovary (twisted ovary)
 Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) is a
common infection of the reproductive tract
• Usually caused by sexually transmitted infections
(Gonorrhea; Chlamydia)
• Infections (acute or chronic) cause inflammation:
– Cervicitis (cervix)
– Endometritis (uterus)
– Salpingitis (fallopian tubes)
– Oophoritis (ovaries)
• Particularly the fallopian tubes and
ovaries
• Short-term concerns:
– peritonitis, pelvic abscess
• Long-term concerns:
– infertility, high risk of ectopic pregnancy
 Female in fertility is associated with hormonal
imbalances, abnormal structures or obstructions
• Hormonal imbalances
– Typically after long use of birth control pill
• Abnormally shaped uterus
• Obstruction of fallopian tubes
– Scar tissue or endometriosis
• Inability of sperm to survive inside
– Change in vaginal pH
• Due to infection or douches
– Excessively thick cervical mucus
– Development of antibodies in female to particular sperm
• Smoking by male or female
– Interferes with circulation
 Follicles in the ovaries hold eggs
• Oocytes are surrounded by layers of cells
• Primary follicle – 2 or more layers of cells enclose the oocyte
• Secondary follicle (“Growing follicle”) – has a fluid-filled space between cells
• Graafian follicle (“Mature follicle”) – when the secondary follicle is at its most mature stage &
bulges from the surface of the ovary
• Ovulation – ejection of the oocyte from the ripening follicle
• Corpus luteum – ruptured follicle after ovulation; degenerates
 Fallopian tubes (oviducts; uterine tubes) provide
a site for fertilization
• Ampulla with fimbriae
– Funnel-shaped part contains fingerlike projections
(fimbriae), which push oocyte into the Fallopian tubes
– oocyte is carried toward the uterus by peristalsis and
ciliary action
• Cilia = Located inside the uterine tube
– Slowly move the oocyte towards the uterus
(takes 3–4 days)
• Nonciliated cells keep the oocyte and the sperm nourished
and moist
• Fertilization occurs inside the uterine tube since oocyte
lives about 24 hours

• Tubal ligation (tubes tied)

– Oviducts are cut and tied off
– Prevents egg from traveling through oviduct after
ovulation; sperm is block from fertilizing the egg
 Oogenesis (meiosis) stars before birth to produce a primary oocyte
• Before birth:
Meiotic Events Follicle Development
– Oogonium (stem cells) multiply by Before birth in Ovary
mitosis 2n Oogonium (stem cell)
Follicle cells
Mitosis
– Primordial follicles appear as the Oocyte
Primary
oogonia are transformed into 2n Primary oocyte
follicle
primary oocytes Growth

– Primary oocytes begin meiosis but 2n Primary oocyte

(arrested in prophase I;
Primary
follicle
stall in prophase I present at birth)
Childhood (ovary inactive)
• During childhood: ovary is inactive! Each month from
Primary
• During menstrual cycle (puberty to puberty to menopause
follicle
2n Primary oocyte (still
menopause): arrested in prophase I) Growing
– One activated primary oocyte follicle

produces two haploid cells Mature

• The first polar body Meiosis I (completed by one
Secondary oocyte
vesicular
(Graafian)
primary oocyte each month)
• The secondary oocyte First polar body n
(arrested in
metaphase II)
follicle

– The secondary oocyte arrests in Ovulation

Sperm
metaphase II and is ovulated Ovulated
secondary
Meiosis II of polar body
• If penetrated by sperm: (may or may not occur) Meiosis II completed oocyte
(only if sperm
– the second oocyte completes Polar bodies n n n n penetration occurs)
meiosis II, resulting in: (all polar bodies
degenerate)
Second
polar body
Ovum

• One large ovum

• A tiny second polar body
 Hormones control changes in the ovaries and
uterus during the menstrual cycle

Ovarian Changes = Maturing egg Uterine changes = Building and

• Days 1-14 = Follicular phase shedding of endometrium
• Days 1-5 = Menstrual phase
– follicles grow; eggs mature
– uterus sheds all but the deepest
• Day 14 = Ovulation part of the endometrium
– Matured egg released into oviduct • Days 6-14 = Proliferative
• Days 14-28 = Luteal phase (preovulatory) phase
– Progesteron levels increase due to – endometrium rebuilds itself
corpus luteum activity • Days 15-28 = Secretory
(postovulatory) phase
– endometrium prepares for
implantation of the embryo
 During the follicle phase (Days 1-14),
estrogen causes the eggs to mature
• Primary follicle becomes a secondary follicle
– The theca folliculi and granulosa cells cooperate to produce estrogens
– The zona pellucida forms around the oocyte
– The antrum is formed
• The secondary follicle becomes a vesicular follicle
– The antrum expands and isolates the oocyte and the corona radiata
– The full size follicle (vesicular follicle) bulges from the external surface of the ovary
– The primary oocyte completes meiosis I
– Ovulation can occur

Follicle phase
Steps 1 6
 A spike in LH causes the egg to be released
during ovulation (Day 14)
• Ovulation occurs when the ovary wall ruptures and expels the secondary oocyte
– Mittelschmerz – a twinge of pain sometimes felt at ovulation
– 1- 2% of ovulations release more than one egg  fraternal twins
• Egg released into fallopian tube

Ovulation = step 7
 The corpus lutem releases progesterone during
the luteal phase (Days 15-28)
• After ovulation, the ruptured follicle collapses and forms the corpus luteum
• The corpus luteum secretes progesterone and estrogen
– These hormones cause the secretory phase in the uterus (preparing for a pregnancy)
– These hormones inhibit FSH & LH
• If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates in 10 days  progesterone
levels decrease
– Low levels of progesterone cause the lining to shed = menstrual flow
• If pregnancy does occur, the corpus luteum produces hormones until the placenta takes
over that role

Luteal phase
= Steps 8 & 9
Hormones cause changes in the uterus to prepare for pregnancy
Uterine Cycle
• Menstrual Flow (Days 1-5)
• Proliferative Phase (Days 6– 14)
• Estrogens cause rebuilding of the endometrium (uterine lining)
• About 1 – 2 weeks in duration
• Ovulation occurs as this stage ends
• Secretory Phase (Days 15-28)
  progesterone causes   blood vessels   endometrium in preparation for
implantation
• If no implantation  menstruation begins (Day 1)
– FSH and LH levels increase again
– New cycle begins
 The menstrual cycle is regulated by hormones
• GnRH causes the release of FSH & LH (Day 1)
  FSH & LH   estrogen  follicles grow
• Rising estrogen levels:
– Inhibit the release of FSH and LH
– Very high estrogen levels have a positive
feedback effect on the pituitary, causing a
sudden surge of LH
• The LH spike stimulates the primary oocyte to
complete meiosis I, and the secondary oocyte
continues on to metaphase II
• Day 14 – LH triggers ovulation
• LH transforms the ruptured follicle into a corpus
luteum, which produces inhibin, progesterone,
and estrogen
• These hormones shut off FSH and LH release
and declining LH ends luteal activity
• Days 26-28 – decline of the ovarian hormones
– Ends the blockade of FSH and LH
– The cycle starts anew
 If fertilization does not occur, the endometrial
lining is shed causing menses
• No fertilization  progesterone levels fall  • Menarche = 1st period
Spiral arteries kink and go into spasms  – Occurs around ages 10-14
lack of oxygen and nutrients cause – Occurring in younger females due to
endometrial cells to die  Spiral arteries
constrict one final time then suddenly relax • Better nutrition
and open wide  The rush of incoming • Better health care
blood causes the weak capillaries to break • Obesity
 endometrial lining sloughs off uterus – Cycle is irregular for first few years
• Menstruation • Peri-menopause = years leading up to
– Loss of approximately ½ cup of blood menopause; hormones begin to fluctuate
• Anemia more common in females • Menopause = last period
– Lasts approximately 3 – 7 days – Occurs around ages 45 – 55
– Average cycle is 28 days – Pregnancy no longer possible without
– Normal range for cycles is 21 – 35 days medical intervention
– Affected by: Stress, Diet, Health – Loss of estrogen
• Risk of osteoporosis
***Pregnancy is possible**** • Hot flashes, night sweats, etc
 Estrogen is the most important hormone in
regulating reproduction in females

• Estrogen levels rise during puberty

• Promote oogenesis and follicle growth in the ovary
• Causes development of the reproductive tract
– Uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina grow larger and become
functional
– Uterine tubes and uterus exhibit enhanced motility
– Vaginal mucosa thickens and external genitalia mature
• Causes secondary sex characteristics
– Growth of the breasts
– Increased deposition of subcutaneous fat, especially in the hips
and breasts
– Widening and lightening of the pelvis
– Growth of axillary and pubic hair
 Birth control pills mimic pregnancy to
prevent ovulation
• Interfere with the normal hormonal • Newer versions
regulation – i.e. Seasonique
• Supplied in 28 day packets – have more days of hormones
• Pills for days 1-21 contain hormones before the placebo days
(estrogen & progestins) • Longer time tricking the body
– Constant supply of ovarian hormones • Few periods per year
 Body thinks it is pregnant • Must be taken at same time
– Ovarian follicles do not develop everyday to be most effective
– Ovulation does not occur • Failure rate is ~10%
– Endometrium grows slightly
• Prescribed for other reasons
• Pills for days 22-28 are placebo (no
– Ovarian cysts
hormones)
– Irregular periods
– Hormones are not being supplied 
Body knows it’s NOT pregnant – Heavy periods
• Endometrium is shed
• Menstrual flow is lighter
 Plan B ® is an emergency contraception that
forces the uterine lining to she prematurely
• High dose of levonorgestrel • Must be taken within 72 hours of having
(progesterone-type hormone) unprotected sex
• Plan B prevents pregnancy by: • Reduces the risk of pregnancy by 89
– stopping ovulation from occurring percent.
or • Effect on menstrual cycle
– preventing fertilization of the egg if –
ovulation has already occurred. Forces the lining to shed prematurely.
– alters the lining of the uterus, making it – Probably experience spotting and
less receptive to a fertilized egg. bleeding immediately after taking Plan B.

If a fertilized egg has already implanted into

the uterus, Plan B will not cause an
abortion.
**It is NOT the abortion pill (RU-486)**

• It is now available at a pharmacy, without

a prescription, for women who are 17
years and older. Proof of age required.
• For women age 16 and younger, Plan B
is still a prescription medication.