LEARNING
LEARNING
Definition of Learning
A general definition of learning is:
Learning is a relatively permanent change
in behavior that is brought about by
experience.
“A process that leads to change, which occurs as
a result of experience and increases the potential
of improved performance and future learning.”
A. Classical Conditioning
Conditioning is the process of pairing two
stimuli together so that if one stimulus can
trigger a reaction, the other can do the same,
too, simply by learned association.
Classical conditioning, also called Pavlovian
conditioning and respondent conditioning, is
learning through the association of a neutral
stimulus with a biologically potent stimulus.
The biologically potent stimulus is an
involuntary response, also known as a reflex
or reflexive response.
Real life examples
Classical conditioning can lead to the development of
phobias, which are intense, irrational fears. For example, A
child sees a dog attack a person. It’s a very frightening
experience (UR).Dogs are generally neutral stimuli (US) that
many people find adorable. But to this child, after this
incident, he’s scared (CR) whenever he sees a dog (CS).
Whenever you come home wearing a baseball cap, you
take your child to the park to play. So, whenever your child
sees you come home with a baseball cap, he is excited
because he has associated your baseball cap with a trip to
the park.
Operant Conditioning:
Operant conditioning, from psychologist B.F. Skinner's
experiments, involves the use of a schedule of reinforcements,
or rewards, and punishments until the behavior is learned.
For instance, if the dog were to hear the bell and step on a
lever, it would receive the dog biscuit, the reward i.e to make
learn a desireable behavior.
Alternatively, punishment, by contrast, would be to take away
something, such as a biscuit, if the dog barks i.e, to unlearn
an undesireable behavior.
Examples
Positive Reinforcement
• Giving a child a compliment or candy for a job
well done.
• Getting paid for a completed task.
• Watching your favorite TV show after doing all
your homework
• Negative Reinforcement
• Studying when you worry about a test
(reinforces study behavior by reducing worry)
• Taking a pain reliever to reduce pain (reinforces
pill-taking behavior by removing pain)
Examples
Positive Punishment
If a student misbehaves in class, the teacher may assign
them extra homework in addition to their regular
assignments.
Governments might impose an additional tax on
unhealthy items such as tobacco or sugary drinks to
discourage their consumption.
Negative Punishment
Child has a toy taken away for fighting with his sister.
Reducing your salary because you came late for work
Media and Violence
Does violence on TV/movies/video games have an impact on the
learning of children?
Correlation evidence from over 50 studies shows that observing violence
is associated with violent behavior.
In addition, experiment evidence shows that viewers of media violence
show a reduction in emotional arousal and distress when they
subsequently observe violent acts-a condition known as psychic numbing.
Cognitive Learning
Cognitive learning is a way of learning that helps students use
their brains more effectively.
This method of learning is active, constructive, and long-lasting.
It encourages students to fully engage in the learning process
so learning, thinking, and remembering get easier.
Cognitive learning isn’t about memorization or repetition. It’s
about developing true understanding; it’s about learning how to
learn.
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development
Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive
development explains how a child
constructs a mental model of the world.
He disagreed with the idea that
intelligence was a fixed trait, and
regarded cognitive development as a
process which occurs due to biological
maturation and interaction with the
environment.
He eventually developed a four-stage
model of how the mind processes new
information encountered. He posited that
Stages of Learning/Cognitive
development:
1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2):
This stage involves the use of motor activity without the use
of symbols.
Knowledge is limited in this stage, because it is based on
physical interactions and experiences. Infants cannot predict
reaction, and therefore must constantly experiment and learn
through trial and error. Such exploration might include
shaking a rattle or putting objects in the mouth.
The main achievement during this stage is object permanence
- knowing that an object still exists, even if it is hidden.
It requires the ability to form a mental representation (i.e., a
schema) of the object.
2. Pre-operational stage (from age
2 to age 7):
The child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly
and needs concrete physical situations. Objects are
classified in simple ways, especially by important
features.
During this stage children begin to use language;
memory and imagination also develop. In the
preoperational stage, children engage in make
believe and can understand and express relationships
between the past and the future.
Thinking is still egocentric, and the infant has
difficulty taking the viewpoint of others.
3. Concrete operational stage
(from age 7 to age 11):
The child begins to think abstractly and
conceptualize, creating logical structures that
explain his or her physical experiences.
Thinking becomes less egocentric with
increased awareness of external events, and
involves concrete references.
4. Formal operational stage (age 11+ -
adolescence and adulthood):
Cognition reaches its final form. By this stage,
the person no longer requires concrete objects
to make rational judgements. He or she is
capable of deductive and hypothetical
reasoning. His or her ability for abstract
thinking is very similar to an adult.
The formal operational stage begins at
approximately age eleven and lasts into
adulthood. During this time, people develop
the ability to think about abstract concepts,
and logically test hypotheses.
