LEAVING CERTIFICATE

GEOGRAPHY: LANDSCAPES

10. GLACIATION AND

GLACIAL PROCESSES
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LEARNING INTENTIONS:
By the end of this chapter I will be able to:
• describe the main glacial processes;
• identify features of the landscape formed by glaciation from an Ordnance Survey
(OS) map, photographs and diagrams;
• identify the dominant processes at play in the formation of each feature;
• describe the formation of one feature of both glacial erosion and glacial deposition
using Irish and/or international examples;
• describe the formation of one feature associated with fluvioglaciation using Irish
and/or international examples.
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Glaciation and Glacial Processes

The term glaciation is used to describe how glaciers and ice sheets are formed, how they
move and how they recede.
Experts suggest that during the last three billion years our earth has experienced five major
ice ages the most recent one being the Quaternary.

KEYWORDS

Pleistocene
Munsterian
Midlandian
nunataks
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Pleistocene Glaciation
The most recent geological time period, the
Quaternary Period, began about 2.6 million years ago
and continues to the present day.
It is divided into two epochs: the Pleistocene and the
Holocene.
A fall in global temperatures over 2.5 million years
ago marked the start of the last great ice age, the
Pleistocene.
During this epoch, cold periods called glacials were
followed by warmer periods called interglacials,
when rising temperatures caused ice to melt and sea
levels to rise above what they are today.
When the Pleistocene Epoch ended about 12,000
years ago, the world entered an interglacial period
called the Holocene Epoch.

European ice cover during the last glacial

period of the Pleistocene Epoch.
Epoch: A subdivision of a geological period,
ranging from 1 million to 10 million years.
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The Glaciations of Ireland
The Irish landscape has been affected by two major
glaciations.
During the oldest, the Munsterian (300,000–130,000
years ago), all of Ireland was covered by ice up to 300
metres in thickness with only the highest mountains
protruding to form nunataks (e.g. The Great Sugar
Loaf, Co. Wicklow).
During the Midlandian glaciation (80,000–12,000
years ago), the advancing ice covered two-thirds of the
country with the exception of the lowland areas of
Munster.
The terminal moraine marking the limit of ice advance
during this glaciation extends from Co. Limerick to Co.
Wicklow.

Nunatak: Part of the landscape protruding above ice cover.

The glaciations of Ireland.
Terminal moraine: Material deposited in front of the ice
sheets when the ice had reached its maximum advance.
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CHECK YOUR
LEARNING
1. When did the Pleistocene Epoch begin and end?
It began about 2.6 million years ago and ended about 12,000 years ago.

2. What name is given to the warmer periods during ice ages?

They are called interglacial periods.

3. Name the two glaciations which Ireland experienced and describe the main characteristics of
each.
• The two glaciations are the Munsterian and Midlandian.
• The main characteristics of the Munsterian are:
• It is the oldest of the two glaciations.
• It occurred between 300,000 and 100,000 years ago.
• All of Ireland was covered by ice up to 300 metres in thickness.
• The main characteristics of the Midlandian are:
• It began about 80,000 years ago and ended about 12,000 years ago.
• It covered the northern two-thirds of the country, leaving the lowlands of Munster
uncovered.
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Glacial Ice Formation

The process of glacial ice formation begins with falling snow which becomes compacted
and eventually forming glacial ice.

KEYWORDS
mass balance plucking
ablation abrasion
basal sliding freeze-thaw
plastic flow
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Ice advance–ice retreat

As falling snow accumulates, the increasing

weight compresses the air from the underlying
layers, changing it first into granular ice, then
into firn, and eventually into glacial ice.

Low concentrations of air make this glacial ice

blue in colour.

It forms valley glaciers and ice sheets when

glaciers coalesce on lowland areas.

Today, valley glaciers occur in the Alps, while

Greenland is covered by vast expanses of ice
sheets.
The formation of glacial ice.
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Ice advance–ice retreat

As the formation of ice proceeds, glaciers and ice sheets will advance.

When the rate of ice creation and the rate of melting are equal, the ice will
remain stationery.

If the rate of ice melt is greater than the rate of ice formation, the ice will
retreat.
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Glacier mass
balance
Glacier mass balance is the difference between the amount of ice a glacier gains
in winter and the amount it loses in summer.

A glacier with a positive mass balance gains more in winter than it loses in
summer and is advancing, while one with a negative mass balance is losing more
and is retreating.

When loss and gain are in balance, the glacier is stationary.

Ablation: The loss of ice and snow from a glacier system

through melting, runoff and evaporation.
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Glaciers have two zones:

• one of accumulation, where snow falls and remains all year,
• one of ablation, where winter snow melts during the summer.
The boundary between the two is called the snow line.
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Movement of
Asice
ice formation continues eventually the weight of the glacier combined with the forces of
gravity cause the ice to flow downhill. Ice flow processes include:
• basal sliding
• plastic flow
Basal sliding
At the base of the glacier, friction caused by the weight of the ice pressing down on the bedrock
causes melting to occur.
This meltwater acts as a lubricant and the effect of gravity causes the glacier to move downhill.
The rate of movement will depend on the steepness of the slope and the rate of ice
accumulation.
Plastic flow/Internal flow
Within a glacier there are two zones:
 upper zone: ice is brittle and breaks apart to form crevasses.
lower zone: about 50 metres below the surface, ice is under steady pressure and
bends/changes shape without breaking.
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Rate of flow
Within a glacier the rate of ice flow can vary.

Friction with the bedrock and the valley sides

means that the rate of ice flow at the base and
sides is much slower than at the surface.

Within the centre of the glacier, less friction

means the ice flows faster.
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Ice is one of the agents of erosion. Processes associated with these

agents include:
Erosion
Transportation
Deposition

Processes of Glacial Erosion

Plucking
Abrasion
Freeze-thaw action
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Glacial erosion:
Plucking
Ice moving over rock/rock outcrops along the
floor/sides of a valley, creates pressure and
friction causing the ice to melt.
The meltwater formed is able to:
• freeze obstacles to the ice and carry them
away;
• seep into rock joints, refreeze, expand and
splinter the bedrock through freeze-thaw
action;
• freeze these splintered pieces to the base
and sides of glacier. Processes of glacial erosion.
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Glacial erosion:
Abrasion
Rock particles along the sides and bottom
of the glacier abrade the rocks over which
the ice passes.
This leave marks on the rocks called striae .
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lacial erosion: Freeze-thaw action

As the ice moves, pressure and friction along the base and sides of the valley cause the ice to melt.
This meltwater seeps into joints and cracks in the rocks.
When it freezes it expands, causing fissures to develop in rock and pieces of the rock (scree) to break away.

How do glaciers shape the landscape?

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he rate of glacial erosion

A number of factors can influence this including:

• presence or absence of well-jointed bedrock;

• gradient (steeper gradient = faster overall rate of erosion);
• shape, size and amount of basal debris.
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CHECK YOUR
LEARNING
1. Explain the following terms: glacier mass balance, ablation.
Glacier mass balance is the difference between the amount of ice a glacier gains in
winter and the amount it loses in summer.
Ablation means the melting of snow and ice.

2. Name two different types of ice flow.

Basal sliding, plastic flow/internal flow.

3. In a glacier, where is ice flow slowest? Give one reason for this.
The ice flow in a glacier is slowest along the base and sides. Friction with the bedrock
and the valley sides is the main reason for this.
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CHECK YOUR
LEARNING

4. Name and explain two processes of glacial erosion.

Two processes are plucking and abrasion.
• Plucking: pressure between the ice and the bedrock and valley sides causes the
ice to melt. This meltwater freezes pieces of rock to the base of the ice. When
the ice moves, it plucks the rocks.
• Abrasion: rock pieces that are stuck to the base and sides of the glacier scratch
and scrape rocks as they pass over them. In this way, scratches called striae are
left on the rock.

5. What can affect the rate of glacial erosion?

• The presence or absence of well-jointed bedrock;
• The gradient (steeper gradient = faster overall rate of erosion)
• Shape, size and amount of basal debris.
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KEYWORDS
Types of Glaciation upland
lowland
Upland Glaciation (Alpine) nivation
Occurs in mountainous regions, carried out by glaciers, and produces rotational slip
hanging valley
mostly landforms of erosion.
U-shaped valley
Examples occur in the uplands of Co. Kerry, while the Alps and
differential erosion
Himalayas are two regions currently experiencing this type of
glaciation. bergschrund
cirque
Lowland Glaciation (Continental) arête
Carried out by ice sheets and is associated with landforms of pyramidal peak
deposition.
Examples occur in Co. Kildare and Co. Offaly.
Greenland is currently experiencing continental glaciation.
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Landforms of Glacial Erosion

Cirque
Arête
Pyramidal peak
U-shaped Valley
Hanging Valley
Truncated spur
Ribbon lake
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Landforms of glacial erosion

Cirque (Coom-corrie)
Irish examples: Coomshingaun, Comeragh Mountains, Co. Waterford; Lough Muskry, Galtee
Mountains, Co. Tipperary
Description: An armchair-shaped depression that forms on the east- or north-facing slopes
of upland areas.
Formation:
Nivation – weathering of rock under
snow by alternate freezing and thawing.
Hollows on the mountain slope are
deepened by nivation, more snow
accumulates.
Compression of the lower layers of snow
form glacial ice and eventually, a glacier.
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Cirque formation:
Ice moves under its own weight in a sliding
motion called rotational slip.
This forms a crevasse (bergschrund) within the
ice.
Scree particles fall into these gaps and, along
with rock pieces plucked from the back and base
of the hollow, are used by the glacier to over-
deepen the hollow by abrasion.
Gravity causes the growing glacier to move
downslope.
A terminal moraine often occurs at the cirque
mouth.
Today, some cirques contain lakes called tarns.
Coom and corrie are two other names for this
feature.
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A cirque with a tarn lake.

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Arête
Irish examples: The Devil’s Punchbowl, Mangerton, Co. Kerry
Description: When two cirques form back-to-back, the processes of glacial erosion will
result in their back walls forming a narrow ridge called an arête.

An arête.
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Pyramidal peak
Examples: Carrauntoohil, Co. Kerry; Matterhorn, Switzerland
Description: An angular, pointed mountain peak.
Formation: Where three or more cirques form on a mountain, the processes of glacial erosion eroding the back
walls will result in the formation of a pyramid-shaped peak or horn.

Carrauntoohil, Co. Kerry. The formation of cirques, arêtes and pyramidal peaks
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U-shaped valleys, hanging valleys, truncated

spurs, ribbon
Irish examples: lakes
Glendalough, Co. Wicklow; Glengesh, Co. Donegal
Description: Valley with steep sides and a broad, flat floor.
Formation:
A number of processes of erosion are involved in the
formation of U-shaped valleys.
Nivation deepens depressions on mountain slopes,
allowing glaciers to form.
Moving downslope by gravity, the erosive power of
the mass of the glaciers, combined with a number of
erosion processes, forms U-shaped valleys – or
troughs – with a number of associated landforms:
• hanging valleys;
• truncated spurs;
• ribbon lakes.
A U-shaped valley, with associated features.
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During glaciation, freeze-thaw action along the

upper slopes of the valley causes scree to break
away and fall both onto the glacier, and
between it and the side of the valley.

Friction at the base of the glacier melts the ice.

When it refreezes, large pieces of the bedrock

become stuck to the base of the glacier.

When the ice moves, they are plucked and

carried away.

Glacial abrasion polishes the floor and sides of

the valleys, leaving striae on outcropping rocks.
 Before glaciation: V-shaped valley with interlocking
spurs

Though plastic flow allows glaciers to bend and change shape, interlocking spurs are too great an
obstacle for the ice to avoid.
Instead, the force of the ice and the erosional processes erode them to form truncated spurs.
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The ice eroded the interlocking spurs

creating truncated spurs

Before glaciation the river valley at Glendalough had interlocking spurs.

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Differential erosion of the valley floor (when areas of less resistant rock are plucked)
forms hollows that become ribbon lakes.
The Upper Lake at Glendalough, Co. Wicklow is an example of a ribbon lake.

The valley floors can

also contain misfit
streams that occupy
only a small part of the
valley floor, and could
not have been
responsible for the
valley formation.
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The formation of hanging valleys:

Larger glaciers with greater erosive power occupy the main valley while smaller
glaciers fill the tributary valleys.
These smaller glaciers cannot erode their valleys to the same extent as the larger
glaciers in the main valley.
When the ice melts, the smaller valleys are left hanging above the floor of the main
valley.
Streams flowing in these smaller valleys create waterfalls when they enter the main
valley (e.g. Glencar, Co Sligo; Polanass, Glendalough).
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HANGING VALLEY

Rivers flowing in
the hanging Deposition of
valley will enter sediment at the
the main valley base of the
via a waterfall. waterfall can form
an alluvial fan
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The Formation of a U-shaped Valley

Before glaciation, V-shaped river valleys with

During glaciation, glaciers which formed in
interlocking spurs existed on the landscape
cirques flowed down the mountain and
bulldozed their way through the river valleys.
Smaller glaciers were less powerful.
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Formation of glacial features

After glaciation, the exposed landscape shows evidence of

glacial erosion. Features formed include U-shaped valley,
truncated spurs and ribbon lake.
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The U-shaped valley Glendalough, Co. Wicklow , was formed by glacial erosion.
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Pater noster lakes

Irish examples: Mount Brandon, Co. Kerry
Description: A series of glacial lakes connected by streams.
Formation:
Differential erosion of the valley floor leads to the formation
of depressions in areas of less resistant rock.
These fill with water, often forming lakes linked by a river
known as pater noster lakes.
Sometimes waterfalls can occur between lakes.

Pater noster lakes, on Brandon Mountain,

Dingle Peninsula, Co. Kerry.

Pater noster lakes.

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Exam Link (OL)

2017, Q2B – Landform Development (40m)

Explain, with the aid of diagrams, the formation of any two landforms.
Sample Answer √ indicates an SRP
At least one SRP must explain a relevant process. Allow one SRP for a named example.

The formation of a cirque. 1 mark

Snow accumulated in hollows on the east- and north-facing slopes of mountains
and was compacted to form a glacier. √ Freeze-thaw action on the back wall and at
the base of the glacier causes pieces of the rock to be broken. √ Plucking √ occurs
when glacial meltwater freezes these pieces of rock to stick to the base of the ice
and as the ice moves, they are carried by it. √ Abrasion by these rocks scratch and
scrape the underlying rock, deepening the hollow and allowing the glacier to grow,
leaving marks called striae. √ Cirques have steep back walls and can contain a lake
called a tarn. √
Coomshinguan in the Comeragh mountains is an example. √
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The formation of a U-shaped valley √ 1 mark

During glaciation, river valleys were occupied by glaciers which widened and deepened
them by glacial erosion to form U-shaped valleys. √ Friction at the base of the glacier
caused it to melt and freeze the underlying rock to the base of the glacier. √ When the ice
moved it carried away large chunks of bedrock, a process known as plucking. √ The force
of the ice eroded interlocking spurs to form truncated spurs. √ Differential erosion of the
valley floor created hollows which form ribbon lakes. √ Tributary valleys, which had
smaller glaciers, were not as deeply eroded and formed hanging valleys along the side of
the main valley. √
Glendalough, Co. Wicklow is an example. √
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Exam Link (HL)

2017, Q3B – Surface Processes (30m)
Examine the impact of the processes of erosion on the formation of one glacial
landform that you have studied.

Sample Answer
√ indicates an SRP
The U-shaped valley √ at Glendalough, Co. Wicklow √ with its associated landforms,
hanging valley and truncated spurs, is an example of a feature of glacial erosion.
The process of nivation, √ which involves the weathering of rock under a snow patch by
alternate freezing and thawing, deepened hollows in the mountains, allowing glaciers to
form. √ These glaciers widened and deepened pre-existing V-shaped river valleys. √ At the
base of the glacier, freeze-thaw action √ occured. This was caused by glacial meltwater
seeping into joints in rocks and the meltwater then freezing, expanding and breaking away
pieces of the rock. √ Friction at the bed and sides of the glacier caused the ice to melt and
freeze around these pieces called scree. √ When the ice moved, it carried these pieces in a
process called glacial plucking. √
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Above the glaciers, freeze-thaw action loosened pieces of rock which fell down between
the ice and the valley sides. √ Glacial abrasion √ occurred when this rock debris along the
bottom and sides of the glaciers scratched and scraped the rocks they travelled over.√
Abrasion left scratches on the rock called striae. √ Differential erosion √ of the valley floor
occurred when areas of less resistant rock were plucked and deepened, forming hollows
to give ribbon lakes, e.g Lough NaFooey, Co. Galway. √
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CHECK YOUR
LEARNING
1. Describe the main characteristics of upland glaciation and lowland glaciation.
Upland glaciation took place on uplands, it was carried out by glaciers and produced
mostly features of glacial erosion.

2. Explain the following terms: nivation, rotational slip.

Nivation occurs when rock under snow is weathered by alternate freezing and
thawing.
Rotational slip describe the movement of a glacier in a cirque.

3. What name is given to a lake occupying a cirque?

A lake occupying a cirque is called a tarn.
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CHECK YOUR
LEARNING
4. Draw a simple diagram to show the contour pattern for a cirque.

5. On which side of uplands do cirques form? Why?

They form on the east- or north-facing slopes. These are the coldest sides of an
upland.

6. Name an Irish example of (a) an arête and (b) a pyramidal peak.

The Devil’s Punch Bowl, Mangerton Mountain, Co. Kerry is an example of an arête.

7. Name four different processes involved in the formation of a U-shaped valley.

Nivation, freeze-thaw action, plucking, abrasion.
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How ice transports material

KEYWORDS

onglacial
englacial
subglacial
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Ice is one of the agents of erosion. Processes associated with these

agents include:
Erosion
Transportation
Deposition

Processes of Glacial Transportation

Onglacial
Englacial
Subglacial
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How ice transports material
Onglacial:
Material carried on the surface of the glacier that was:
• loosened from the upper valley sides by freeze-thaw action;
• deposited by landslides, debris slides or avalanches.
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Englacial:
Material found within the glacier that may have:
• fallen onto it and melted its way downwards;
• fallen into a crevasse;
• risen from the valley floor to higher up within the ice.
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Subglacial:
Material found at the base of the glacier:
• may have been eroded by plucking;
• originated on the surface and made its way downwards through the
ice.
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Landforms of glacial deposition

As glaciers and ice sheets advanced across the landscape bedrock beneath, the ice
was crushed into either boulders, smaller rocks, pebbles, sand, silt or clay.

When the ice melts, a mixture of all this material called glacial drift is left behind.

KEYWORDS

glacial drift stratified recessional

unstratified lateral erratic
drumlins medial drumlin
moraines terminal carrying capacity
friction
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Landforms of glacial deposition

There are two types of drift:
1. Unstratified drift:
Deposited directly by the ice, this material consists of different sized particles all mixed
together.
It is more commonly known as boulder clay or till, and is the main component of drumlins
and moraines.
Boulder clay deposits cover much of the Irish landscape (e.g. the Golden Vale, Co. Limerick).

2. Stratified drift:
Deposited by meltwater from the ice.
It is smooth, as a result of fluvial erosion, and was deposited in layers, with larger particles on
the bottom and lighter material in the upper layers.
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Landforms of glacial deposition

Moraines
Erratics
Drumlins
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Moraine
s
Irish examples: Co. Kildare; Co. Limerick
Description: Accumulations of rock, earth, sand and gravel
deposited by ice.
Formation:
Moraines are composed of
unstratified drift material of varying
sizes deposited by glaciers and ice
sheets.
Onglacial, englacial and subglacial
moraines are associated with existing
valley glaciers

Lateral, medial and terminal moraines during glaciation.

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Valley glacier moraines

These onglacial moraines form when unstratified

rock debris, which has been loosened from the
valley sides by freeze-thaw action moves
downslope by mass movement and ends up on
the surface of the glacier.
Valley glacier moraines can be seen on existing
valley glaciers in the Alps and the Himalayas.

There are three types:

lateral
medial Moraines, on Igdlorssuit Glacier, southern Greenland.
terminal
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Lateral moraines
Occur along the sides of the glaciers where the loosened material
which fell from the upper valley slopes has accumulated.

Medial moraines
Extend down the centre where a tributary glacier joins a larger
glacier.
Rocks and stones in lateral and medial moraines protect the
underlying ice from melting, so they form ridges above the
glacier’s surface.

Terminal moraines
Occur at the front or snout of the glacier – mark the furthest
advance of glaciers and ice sheets.
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Moraines associated with post-glacial landscapes:

Lateral moraines
Occur along sides of U-shaped valleys (e.g. Glenmalure,
Co. Wicklow).

Terminal moraines
Mark the maximum advancement of the glacier or
ice sheet.
Terminal moraines run parallel to glacier and ice
sheet fronts.
Examples include:
• Glendalough, Co. Wicklow
• Midlandian Ice Age terminal moraine extends Post-glacial valley moraines.
from Co. Limerick to the western slopes of the
Wicklow Mountains
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Recessional moraines
Formed when the retreating glaciers and ice sheets halted and remained in a stationary
position for a long time.
In glacial valleys, they extend across the valley floors.

Ground moraine
Retreating glaciers deposit on valley floors (e.g. Glendasan, Co. Wicklow).
Retreating ice sheets deposit on lowlands, creating gently rolling boulder clay plains (e.g. Co.
Kildare).
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Erratics
Irish examples: Connemara granite, Inis Mór, Aran Islands

Description: A rock which differs in type and shape to its surroundings.

Formation:
With the melting of the ice, transported
load, including rocks and boulders
plucked by glaciers and ice sheets, was
deposited in areas where the bedrock
was of a different composition.

An example of this can be seen in

Connemara granite deposited on the
limestone landscapes of the Aran
Granite erratic, Aran Islands.
Islands, Co. Galway.
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Drumlins
Irish examples: Clew Bay, Co. Mayo; Scarriff-Sixmilebridge,
Co. Clare
Description: Drumlins are oval-shaped hills of boulder clay.

Drumlin formation - animation A drumlin near Strangford Lough, Co. Down.

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Formation:
The carrying capacity of ice refers to its ability to transport material.
When ice becomes overloaded with sediment, the carrying capacity is reduced and
deposition will occur.
Factors affecting carrying capacity include:
• volume of sediment;
• velocity of the ice flow.
Velocity reduces when:
• ice melts;
• friction with the underlying rock occurs.
Reduced carrying capacity of the glacier causes deposition of transported material.
Erosive action of the moving ice shapes and streamlines these deposits, giving the
drumlins their characteristic shape.
Some drumlins are elongated, which may be the result of faster ice movement around
the deposits.
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Drumlins can be up to a kilometre long and 500 m wide with an average height of 50 metres.

The orientation of drumlins is an

indication of the direction of the ice
flow:
• the steep end of a drumlin (stoss
slope) is the side that faced the
approaching ice;
• the lee slope faced away from it.

Drumlins occur in swarms and create a landscape called ‘basket of eggs’ topography.
Precipitation drains down the slopes of the drumlins, but because the land at their base is
also covered with impermeable boulder clay, drainage can be poor, leading to waterlogging
and the formation of saturated gley soils.
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The drumlin drift belt that extends from Strangford

Lough, Co. Down to Clew Bay, Co. Mayo is an
important example of a drumlin field.

In both Strangford Lough and Clew Bay, post-glacial

sea level rises have resulted in some of the drumlins
being ‘drowned’ and forming islands.
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CHECK YOUR
LEARNING
1. Explain the following terms: stratified, unstratified.
Stratified drift deposited by meltwater form the ice. It was deposited in layers with the
larger heavier particles at the bottom and the smaller and lighter particles as you move
upwards.
Unstratified drift: This is made up of all different sizes and types of material all mixed
together. It was deposited directly by the ice and is more commonly known as boulder
clay or till.

2. Name three different types of moraine found in valley glaciers.

Lateral, medial, terminal.

3. Name three types of moraines found on lowland areas.

Lateral, recessional, terminal.
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CHECK YOUR
LEARNING

4. What is an erratic?
A rock which differs in shape and type from the surrounding rock. It was deposited on
the landscape by melting ice.

5. List three steps in the formation of drumlins.

• The carrying capacity of the ice is reduced.
• The ice deposits material.
• The deposited material is sculpted and shaped by the ice as it moves over it.
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Exam Link (HL)

2016, Q2B – Landform Development (30m)
Examine the impact of the processes of deposition on the formation of any one
landform that you have studied.

Sample Answer
√ indicates an SRP
Drumlins: √

Example: Clew Bay, Co. Mayo √

The process of drumlin formation involves the ice becoming overloaded with sediment.√ The
carrying capacity of ice is its ability to transport material and when this is reduced, deposition
will occur. √ Factors affecting carrying capacity include the volume of sediment and the velocity
of the ice flow. √ Velocity can be reduced when the ice begins to melt, and also when friction
with the underlying rock occurs. √
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The presence of rock cores in some drumlins suggest that they may have reduced
the velocity of the ice which caused the ice to deposit material around them. √ These
deposits were shaped and streamlined to give the drumlins their characteristic
shape. √ Some drumlins have elongated shapes which may be the result of faster ice
movement around the deposits. √
Drumlins are oval-shaped hills composed of unstratified till or boulder clay. √ The
orientation of drumlins is an indication of the direction of ice flow. √ The steep end
of a drumlin called the stoss slope is the side which faces the approaching ice while
the lee slope faced away from it. √ Drumlins occur in swarms and create a landscape
called ‘basket of eggs’ topography. √
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The drumlin drift belt, which extends from Strangford Lough, Co. Down to Clew Bay, Co.
Mayo, is an important example of a drumlin field. √ In both Strangford Lough and Clew Bay,
post-glacial sea level rises have resulted in some of the drumlins being ‘drowned’ and
forming islands. √

Stoss slope √

lee
slope

Cross section through a drumlin

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Fluvioglaciation
Fluvioglaciation is the process by which meltwater from glaciers and ice sheets was
responsible for the creation of landforms of erosion and deposition.
This process was most active when temperatures rose towards the end of the Pleistocene
Epoch, releasing huge quantities of water.
As water was the main agent involved, depositional features are all composed of stratified
material with the heavier particles at the base of the feature.

KEYWORDS
fluvioglaciation kame
spillway kettle hole
pro-glacial lake outwash plain
esker
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Landforms of fluvioglaciation

Erosion Deposition
Glacial spillway
Esker

Kame

Kettle holes

Outwash plain
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Feature of erosion
Glacial spillway
Irish examples: Glen of the Downs, Co. Wicklow; Pass of Keimaneigh, Co. Cork
Description: A valley formed by large volumes of glacial meltwater.
Formation
A pro-glacial lake forms when meltwater
becomes trapped between the ice and an upland
area.
The level of this lake continues to rise until the
water reaches the lowest point of the upland and
overflows.
The meltwater carries out vertical erosion by
abrasion and hydraulic action, creating a river
valley with its typical V-shaped profile. The formation of a glacial spillway.
Established spillways are often occupied by misfit
streams, and provide routes through upland areas, e.g
the N11 road through the Glen of the Downs.
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Glacial spillway – the Glen of the Downs, Co. Wicklow.
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Features of deposition
Esker
Irish examples: Eiscir Riada, Clonmacnoise, Co. Westmeath
Description: A long winding ridge of stratified glacial material.
Formation:
Eskers form in tunnels under an advancing ice sheet where
huge volumes of meltwater carry englacial material.
The exits of these tunnels often get blocked by the build-up
of material, stopping meltwater flow and causing
deposition.
The material including boulders, sand and gravel is
deposited in stratified layers. The formation of an esker.
Eskers run perpendicular to terminal moraines.
In the ancient past, they were used as routes, while today
they supply commercial sand gravel pits.
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An esker in North Dakota.

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Kame
Irish examples: Co. Kildare
Description: A kame is a conical mound of stratified glacial drift, usually sand and gravel.
Formation:
• They form where hollows
close to the edge of the
melting ice fill with water
which contain large
amounts of sediments.

• These sediments are

lowered through the
melting ice and form a
mound.

The formation of kames.

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A kame in Wester Pearsie, Scotland.

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Kettle holes
Irish examples: Co. Westmeath
Description: Hollows, often filled with
lakes.
Formation:
As the ice age was ending, large pieces
of ice sheets and glaciers broke away,
leaving blocks of ‘dead ice’ in the
fluvioglacial deposits.
The melting ice formed depressions,
called kettle holes, which can become The formation of kettle holes.
lakes
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Kettle holes in Northwest Territory, Canada.

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Outwash plain
Irish examples: The Curragh, Co. Kildare
Description: A large area covered with meltwater deposits.
Formation:
Meltwater flowing from glaciers and ice sheets
deposits its load in front of the ice.
In some cases, meltwater flowing through the
terminal moraine removes material which is
then deposited beyond the moraine to form an
outwash plain.
The heavier gravel is transported the shortest
distance, while lighter clays and sands are
carried longer distances before they are
deposited.
Outwash deposits can be up to 50 m thick and
extend over a wide area.
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An outwash plain, Alaska, USA.

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CHECK YOUR
LEARNING
1. What is fluvioglaciation?
Fluvioglaciation refers to the processes where melting water from glaciers and ice
sheets was responsible for the formation of landforms of erosion and deposition.

2. Name and give an example of one erosional feature formed by fluvioglaciation.

A glacial spillway is an erosional feature formed by fluvioglaciation.

3. Identify three depositional features formed by fluvioglaciation.

Three depositional features are:
• esker
• outwash plain
• kettle hole
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CHECK YOUR
LEARNING

G B E
C D A
F

B D
A C
F E
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EXAMINATION
QUESTIONS
ORDINARY LEVEL

C
Glacial
A
B River
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EXAMINATION
QUESTIONS
HIGHER LEVEL

B √
A √
D √
C √
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EXAMINATION
QUESTIONS
HIGHER LEVEL

D A
C B
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EXAMINATION
QUESTIONS
HIGHER LEVEL

Plucking: Meltwater from the ice caused by friction between it and the bedrock freezes
rock to the base of the ice. When the ice moves it plucks the rock and carries it away.
2 marks

Abrasion: Rock pieces protruding from the ice scratch and scrape rock surfaces as it
passes over it. Marks on the called striae are left on the bedrock. 2 marks