Chapter 3
X-ray radiography techniques
Objectives
- Recording of Radiation
- Radiographic film
- Radiographic techniques
- Radiographic Sensitivity
- Fluoroscopic Methods
- Radiation Safety
Recording of Radiation
X-rays are not directly observable by the human senses, so the intensity distribution must be converted to some other
variable.
• For many years the most widely used converter has been a sheet of radiographic film. However, there are alternative
detectors.
• A normal radiographic film consists of two emulsions of silver halide crystals in gelatin, coated on either side of a flexible
film base, example a polyester, with an adhesive substrate, anti-scratch layers, etc.
• Modern radiographic film is marketed in flat sheets of all the usual photographic sizes, and in long lengths of strip film
for wrapping round pipes.
• After exposure the film is processed (i.e. developed, rinsed, fixed, washed and dried).
• X-ray intensities are represented by different degrees of film blackening-photographic densities which can be seen by
placing the processed film on an illuminated screen.
Radiographic film
Film density D
Photographic density, D, is defined as D = log10 I0/It
where I0, is the intensity of light incident on one side of the film and I, is
the intensity transmitted through the film.
Thus a film which transmits one-hundredth of the incident light has a If a number of small areas on a film
density of 2.0. are given different exposures, the
film then uniformly processed and
the densities measured, a curve can
The exposure given to a film, E, is the direct product of X-ray intensity, I, be plotted of density, D, against
exposure E.
and exposure time, t. E = It
Film density refers to the overall darkness or blackness of the X-ray film image.
Radiographic direct-type film: density/exposure curve
It is determined by the amount of light transmitted through the film.
Higher film density indicates a darker image, while lower density results in a
lighter image.
Film gradient (film contrast) GD
Radiographic film
Characteristic curve: D is plotted against log10 E.
The characteristics of the curve for films exposed to X-rays are:
For most radiographic films,
1- a minimum film density, a, which is not zero, between 0.2 and 0.3 Dmax is between 10 and 15.
2- the toe of the curve (region A-B), in which the slope of the curve is
increasing
3- a region (B-C-D) in which the slope of the curve is more nearly
constant
4. a region above D where the curve begins to turn over to a maximum
value, Dmax
The slope of the curve at any point is called the film gradient, or film
contrast, GD, and is given by
Film contrast refers to the difference in optical density between two adjacent areas of the X-ray film.
A high contrast film will have distinct differences between areas of high and low density, resulting in a more pronounced
image.
A low contrast film will have less differentiation between different densities, resulting in a more grayish appearance.
Radiographic film
Film speed number
• Derived curves of GD against D are important in radiography and an
example of these is shown in the figure.
• An important parameter can be obtained from a film characteristic curve
is the film speed number (exposure required to produce an agreed film
density).
• it is usually described in qualitative terms such as 'very-fine-grain', 'fine-
grain', 'medium-speed', or 'high-speed’.
• A slower, finer-grained film is capable of showing more, or better, image
detail than a faster film, other things being equal.
Film speed number indicates how quickly the film can record an image with a given X-ray exposure.
A higher film speed number requires less X-ray exposure to produce a properly exposed image while a lower film speed
number require a higher X-ray exposure to achieve proper image density.
A high-quality X-ray radiograph is usually obtained with a low film speed number.
Radiographic film
Film unsharpness Uf
• X-ray quantum can sensitise a small volume of silver halide crystals, thus producing a
small disc instead of a point image and this is equivalent to producing an inherent or
film unsharpness, Uf.
• A sharp metal edge is laid on the film, and the image of this edge on the processed
film is examined.
• X-ray quantum absorbed in a silver halide crystal just to the left of O will sensitise
silver halide grains to the right of O, and the density distribution across the image
follows curve B in practice, rather than the idealised curve A.
Film unsharpness, Uf curve A shows the idealised density distribution across the
image of a sharp edge, and curve B shows the practical density distribution on film
(both enlarged in the x-direction).
The width of the unsharpness, Uf, can be measured in mm, analogously to geometric
unsharpness.
Radiographic film
Film unsharpness Uf
• High energy quanta will produce a greater effect as measured
values of Uf show.
• Film unsharpness depends more on the silver/gelatin ratio in the
film emulsion, than on the actual film-grain size.
• Film graininess is measured in terms of the blending distance at
which no graininess can be discerned.
• Granularity is a function of the film emulsion characteristics and
the film processing.
• Film unsharpness is primarily a function of the radiation energy
absorbed in the film emulsion.
Experimental curve of Uf against X-ray energy
Radiographic techniques
Basic principles of film radiography
The majority of specimens to which radiography is applied can be broadly divided into:
- Approximately uniform thickness specimens, such as butt-welds, which are examined to detect internal flaws.
- Non-uniform thickness specimens, such as small castings, also examined to detect internal flaws.
- Assemblies, examined to check correctness of assembly, presence of specific components, spacing between
components, etc.
High- or low-sensitivity techniques may be used.
In the high sensitivity case, all the technique factors are adjusted to make the defect sensitivity (and the image quality
indicator sensitivity) the best possible.
An example of a high-sensitivity requirement is the inspection of welded metals.
An example of a low-sensitivity requirement would be the inspection of a structural unstressed casting.
Thickness penetration
Radiographic techniques
• The first requirement is to have radiation which is capable of penetrating the specimen thickness, within a practicable,
economic exposure-time.
Radiography of steel specimens (maximum thicknesses which can be examined)
The 'high sensitivity' column represents the use of fine-grain film with lead or metal intensifying screens such as would be
recommended for the radiography of steel butt-welds in pressure vessels.
The 'low sensitivity' column represents the use of faster films, also with lead intensifying screens.
This latter technique would be unsuitable for the detection of fine cracks.
Radiographic techniques
Exposure curves
The first requirement is to obtain the constants of the
equipment itself.
- Kilovoltage,
- current output in milliamperes,
- focal spot size and, and
- the physical position of the focal spot.
Exposure curves for steel plates and X-rays between 100 and 400 kV; D.7 film;
1000 mm source-to-film distance; film density 2.0; lead-foil intensifying screens.
Radiographic techniques
Unsharpness
Using the approximate, appropriate voltage value, the film unsharpness resulting from this X-radiation is read off.
Two decisions should now be made
• Firstly, if the requirement is for high-sensitivity radiography-e.g. butt-weld inspection, detection of fine cracks, or
detection of small detail-it will be assumed that the radiographs will be taken on fine-grain, or very-fine-grain film, to a
film density of 2.0.
• If fine cracks are not likely to occur and only grosser defects are likely, medium-speed film can be used, with shorter
exposure-times, also exposed to obtain a film density of 2.0.
• Many applications standards, in fact, specify the type of film to be used.
• Secondly, if a high-sensitivity technique is required, the geometric unsharpness will be made equal to the film
unsharpness, Ug = Uf
• If a low-sensitivity technique is adequate, the geometric unsharpness can be allowed to be equal to twice the film
unsharpness, Ug = 2Uf
Source-to-film distances
Radiographic techniques
Having determined the appropriate value of geometric unsharpness and knowing the specimen thickness and the effective
source diameter, the appropriate minimum source-to-film distance (sfd) is calculated.
The parameters of the appropriate technique are now known. Minimum source-to-film distances, based on U g = Uf
In industrial radiography, 'sensitivity'
nearly always means the ability to
show detail.
The ability to detect a flaw in a casting or a weld depends on
- the nature of the flaw
- its shape
- orientation to the radiation beam
- the technique parameters
Other X-ray Radiography Methods
Fluoroscopic Methods
If a fluoroscent screen, which converts X-rays to light, is
put behind a specimen, an image of the specimen can be
seen on this screen.
A visible image is produced on the fluorescent screen due
to differential absorption in the different thicknesses of the
specimen.
The thinner, less absorbent parts of the specimen are seen
as brighter areas on the screen. Cavities are brighter, not
darker.
Setup for automated x-ray inspection of welds
Norbert Meyendorf, Nathan Ida, Ripudaman Singh, Johannes Vrana. Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation 4.0. Springer Nature Switzerland AG
Other Radiography Methods
Computed tomography
Robot-based CT in the production process.
Two robots, one of them (left) carrying the X-ray tube and
the other a flat panel detector (the right one), constitute a
flexible 3D X-ray system used for inspecting a body shell
segment.
The reconstructed volume data allow an inspection of
connections as for instance adhesive bonds (lower left
image) or welding seams (lower right).
Radiation Safety
Safety
Radiation can cause damage to living tissue, so it is necessary to ensure that personnel operating, or in the vicinity of,
radiographic equipment are adequately protected from radiation.
The general principles of radiation protection design are:
1- distance: personnel kept away from radiation sources
2- absorption: barriers of highly absorbent material provided
3- time: planned so that personnel are within a radiation field for the minimum practicable time
