ORGANIZATIONAL

BEHAVIOUR- OB
•Meaning of OB:
•It is the combination of two words
•Organization:
•It is a group of people who are collectively working together to
achieve a specified goals
•Behavior:
•It is the way an individual respond, to a particular situation, or
in a particular condition, to the surrounding environment either
physically or verbally
Organizational Behavior:
•It is the study of human behaviour at work or in an organization
•It is the study and application of knowledge, about how people
will act and behave with in the organization
•Many number of people will work in an organization Ex: college
•The study of their behaviour in the organizational context, is
called OB
•It is a field of science, that will study and investigate or do
research, on what is the impact of individuals, groups, and
organizational structure, culture, environment on the behaviour
 • Units in the syllabus of OB:
•There are 5 units in the syllabus
•Unit -I:
•a)Introduction to OB : Definition, Nature and Scope
•b)Cognitive processes -I : Perception and Attribution
•Unit -II:
•c)Cognitive processes-II: Personality and Attitudes
•Cognitive processes means mental processes like thinking, knowing,
remembering, judging and problem solving
•Unit –III:
•d)Dynamics of OB –I : Communication
•e)Dynamics of OB-II : Stress and conflict
•Unit – IV:
•f)Dynamics of OB – III : Power and Politics
•Unit – V: Leading High Performance
•UNIT – I : Introduction to OB
•Unit-I Topics :
•a)Introduction to OB:
•1. Definition of OB 2. Nature and Scope of OB
•[Link] and organizational context [Link] of IT on
OB [Link] of Globalization on OB [Link] of Diversity on
OB [Link] of Ethics on OB [Link] of Culture on OB,
[Link] of Reward systems on OB and [Link] of
Organizational design on OB
•b)Cognitive processes-I: Perception and attribution:
•[Link] and importance of Perception [Link]
selectivity and organization [Link] perception
[Link] Theories [Link] of control [Link]
Errors 17. Impression Management
•Part: a)Introduction to OB:
•1. Definition of OB:
•OB refers to the behaviour of individuals and groups, with in
an organization, and the interaction between organizational
members and their external environment
•Knowledge gained by such study is most useful in
improving organizational effectiveness
•OB is the study of human behaviour in organizational
settings, it is an interface between human behaviour and the
organization itself ---- [Link]
•OB is the field of study, that investigate about the impact that
individuals, groups, and organizational structure have on their
behavior with in the organizations
•It is used for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards
improving organizations effectiveness
• ---Stephen P. Robbins
•Organizational behavior can be defined as the study and application
of knowledge about human behavior, related to the other elements of
an organization, such as structure, technology and social system
• ----L.M. Prasad
•Organizational behavior is the study and application of
knowledge, about how people will act, as individuals and as
groups, with in an organization
•It is used to identify the ways, in which people can act more
effectively ---Keith Davis and Newstram
•Organizational behavior is directly concerned with the
understanding, prediction and control of human behavior in
organizations ----Fred Luthans
[Link] and scope of OB:
• Nature of OB:
• [Link] is an interdisciplinary approach
• [Link] is a separate field of study and not a discipline only
• [Link] is an applied Science
• [Link] is a Normative Science
• [Link] is a humanistic and optimistic approach
• [Link] is a total system approach
•[Link] is an Interdisciplinary approach:
•Discipline means it is an accepted field of science, based on a
theoretical foundation
•OB is an interdisciplinary approach, to study human behaviour at work
place
•In the work environment it will integrate the relevant knowledge drawn
from different disciplines like psychology, sociology, social psychology,
Anthropology
•And apply that knowledge for studying and analysing organizational
Behaviour
•[Link] is a separate field of study and not a discipline only :
•Discipline means it is an accepted field of science, based on a
theoretical foundation
•But OB has a multi – interdisciplinary orientation, so it is not
based one specific theoretical background only
•OB is a separate field of study, rather than discipline only
•It means that it is not based on a specific theoretical background,
it is often misunderstood to be a discipline,
•[Link] is an applied science:
•OB Aims to solve the organizational problems, particularly
related to human behaviour, by applying various research
findings
•The basic line of difference between pure science and OB is
•Pure science focuses on fundamental researches
•OB concentrates on applied researches
•OB involves both applied research and its application in
organizational analysis
•Hence OB can be called both science as well as Art, we can
show our creativity
•4. It is a Normative Science:
•OB is a normative science, there is a focus on how applied
research can be used for socially accepted organizational goals
•OB prescribes how the findings of applied research can be
applied to socially accepted organizational goals
•Thus OB deals with what is accepted by individuals and
society engaged in an organization
•[Link] is a Humanistic and optimistic approach:
•OB applies humanistic approach towards people, working in the
organization
•It deals with the thinking and feelings of the human beings
•OB believe that people have an innate or strong desire to be
independent, creative and productive
•It also realizes that people working in the organization will
actualise their potentials, if they are given proper conditions and
environment
•Environment affects performance of the workers in an
Organization
•It deals with the fact as to understanding the emotions and
feelings of human beings
•It is necessary to consider the employees feelings and wants
to make them feel wanted
•Then there will be positive energy and productivity in the
work environment
•[Link] is a total system Approach:
•The system approach is one that integrates all the variables that
are affecting organizational functioning
•The systems approach has been developed by behavioural
scientists to analyse human behaviour in view of his or her
socio- psychological frame work
•Socio- Psychological frame work makes any one a complex one
•The systems approach tries to study his or her complexity, and
find solution to it
•So, Organizational behaviour is the study of shaping the
behaviour of the organizational personnel
•By nature OB is an applied science that takes a systematic
approach that understands the reason behind the behaviour and
influences it in a way that benefits attaining business goals
•For influencing the human behaviour within the organization, OB
tries to find the motivation and drive any particular behaviour
•It sets an environment that delivers maximum performance from
the workers
•Scope of OB:
•OB is the study of human behavior at work with in the
organization
•The scope of OB is divided into three different levels
•[Link] level behavior :
•An individual is studied from the personality, motivation,
interests and attitudes of an organization
• Various interaction sessions and one to one are conducted to
understand and study the individual and make a perception
about them
• the study of individuals include aspects like personality,
perception, Attitudes, Motivation, Job satisfaction, learning
and values etc.,
•[Link] level behavior or Inter-Individual behavior:
•It is studied when communication happens among the
employees
•It is the study of persons interaction with their social group,
subordinates or senior employees in the work place
•It helps to understand the leadership styles and qualities and
help to resolve the conflicts quickly if any arise in the group
dynamics
•The efforts made by a group to achieve the objectives or
goals of an organization is called group behavior
•In this the behavior of everyone who is a part of the group
is considered
•The study of various aspects like Group dynamics, group
conflicts, communication, leadership, power and politics
•The study of various aspects like Group dynamics, group
conflicts, communication, leadership, power and politics v
•[Link] context and
Organizational context:
 •Environmental Context:
•An organizations environment is a major consideration
•The environment is the source of resources that the
organization needs
•It provides opportunities and threats, and it influences the
various strategic decisions that executives must make
•The main factors that has an impact on organizational
environment are
•[Link] or Role of IT
•[Link]
•[Link] in work place & its implementation,
•[Link] & Ethical behavior
•[Link]
•[Link] systems
•[Link] impact or Role of Information Technology IT:
•The rapid development of information technology and
communication technology has great impact on OB
•Newer type of Technology tools such as Internet, email,
Social media, Big data analytics etc., are creating significant
changes in the way that information flows between groups,
customers and suppliers
•It plays a vital role in every business type, either it is small,
medium, large or multinational companies
•Now a days there is intense competition is there, that is
forcing the organization to become more efficient and
effective
•It can be done by the use of information Technology
•It is used in companies to implement effective
communication
•Technology can be used to protect financial data,
confidentiality, executive decisions, and other proprietary
information that leads to competitive advantage
•Technology helps business keep their ideas away from competitors
•IT foster innovation in business, innovation results in smarter apps,
improved data storage, faster processing, and wider information
distribution
•Innovation makes business run more efficiently
•Innovation increases values, enhances quality and boosts
productivity
•Information technology helps in developing automated processes,
which is crucial for business efficiency
•This will helps in reducing the cost of operation, but also saves
time
•The time saved can be utilized to focus on other important tasks,
thus speeding up business processes
•As the industry becomes more global in its procurement,
manufacturing an marketing operations, it requires greater use of
information technology to reduce the time and space barriers
•With constant reorganization as well as increased mergers and
acquisitions, top management recognizes the need for flexibility
through compatible information Technology
•[Link]:
•Globalization is the process by which the world is becoming
global village, interconnected as a result of massively
increased trade and cultural exchange
•Globalization has increased the production of goods and
services, they are crossing the boarders
•Even though the companies are having financial resources,
products, position to be a dominant global player, they are
facing a lack of human resources
•Globalization is a process, by which people and goods or
products move easily across the borders
•Globalization changed the nature of managerial work,
requiring managers in the globalized era, to increase their
judgemental power, use of persuasion and influence, shaping
of the behaviour of the people
•Globalization is the tendency of businesses, technologies or
philosophies to spread throughout the world or the process
of making that happen
•The global economy or globality can be characterized as a
totally inter connected market place, un hampered by the time
zones or national boundaries
•We all know that OB is a field of study
•It studies individuals, groups and the effect of structure on
their behaviour, to make organizational work more effectively
•Understanding globalization and its effect on OB, is crucial to
interact effectively with in the modern global economy
•Globalization affects OB in several ways
• They are like stimulating competitive pricing for a product or
services
•Globalization encourages continuous operations and communicating
around the clock and through out the globe
•To be successful in a global economy, professionals should have a
through knowledge of psychology, sociology, communication and
management
•The global economy has enabled customers to enjoy a buyers market,
if the company offers most competitive price possible for a product or
service, it will receive orders from customers around the world
•[Link] in workplace:
•Diversity in the workplace means that a company’s workforce includes
people of varying genders, age, religion, race, ethnicity, cultural background,
religion, languages, education, abilities etc.,
•It has a great effect on the study and application of OB
•Diversified workforce is the greatest asset to the organization, diverse talent
gives competitive advantage to the Organization in todays environmental
context
•Diversity can be effective:
•By creating a work environment or culture that allows everyone to
contribute to the organization
•By balancing the differences and similarities in the
workforce for the advantage of the organization
•By enhancing the ability of people from different
backgrounds to work effectively together
•Diversity in the work place means the acceptance and
inclusion of employees from all backgrounds
•A diverse work force is an important asset to the company,
it brings individual strengths of each employee and the
potentials
•Diversity improves creativity and innovation in the
organization
•Every culture, every nationality, every single person sees the
world in a different way
•Similarly every culture, nationality and person has different
knowledge, perspectives and point of view
•When all of these different views are shared together, miracles
can happen in the organization Ex: US
•Work place diversity includes
•An organization team is made up of people from different
cultures
•An organization makes an effort to bring more diversity to its
leadership staff
•A company putting an emphasis on people with different
backgrounds is another example of workplace diversity
•Diversity in work place is employees from different races,
genders, ethnic groups(different cultures), age, religion,
citizen status, military service and mental and physical
conditions
•Benefits:
•Increase productivity, improved creativity, increased profits,
Improved employee engagement, reduce employee turnover
•Improved company reputation, wider range of skills, improves
cultural insight
•Issues:
•Acceptance and respect, Accommodation of Beliefs, Ethnic
and cultural differences, Gender equality at the work place,
Generation gaps, Language and communication
•[Link] & Ethical behaviour:
•Ethics involves moral issues an choices and deals with right and
wrong behaviour
•Moral principle that govern a persons behaviour or the conducting
of an activity is called ethics
•Business ethics:
•These are the ethics in the workplace is defined as the moral code
that guides the behaviour of employees with respect to what is right
and wrong, and to what is good and bad, in regard to conduct and
decision making
•Ethics are the principles and values used by an individual to
govern his or her actions and decisions
•An organization will form, when individuals with varied
interests, and different backgrounds, unite in a common
platform and work together towards predefined goals and
objectives
•Ethical behavior is characterized by honesty, fairness and
equity in interpersonal relations, professional and academic
relationships and in research and scholarly activities
•Ethical behavior respects the dignity, diversity and rights of
individuals and groups of people
•An organization that is perceived to act ethically by employees
can realize positive benefits, and improved business outcomes
•The perception of ethical behavior can increase employee
performance, job satisfaction, organizational commitment,
trust and organizational citizenship behaviors
•Some common work place ethics include trustworthiness,
accountability, respect, transparency and integrity
•Companies rely on trustworthiness with in their
organization, as well as between their clients to foster
dependable relationship
•Ethics and values affect the way in which individuals
approach a subject and tackle problems
•Ethics and values influence individual behavior, and
promote integrity among their employees and gain trust
from key stake holders, such as investors and consumers
•Importance of ethical behaviour in organization:
•To prohibit the ethical issues such as illegal practices,
looting an frauds in an organization, implementation of
ethical conducts are essential
•To control the discrimination is a social responsibility of the
organization that it related to ethics and the ethical codes &
conducts should be reflected in their policies
• A number of cultural forces like family, friends,
neighbour's, education, religion and the media
•Organizational forces like ethical codes, role models,
policies and practices and reward and punishment system
•External forces like political, legal, economic and
international developments, all of them help to determine
ethical behaviour
•These influences acting interdependently, serve to help
identify and shape ethical behaviour in todays organizations
both individually and as a group
•Clear communication of the boundaries of ethical conduct
•Selection of employees who support the ethical culture
•Reward of ethical behaviour and punishment of members who engage
in unethical behaviour
•So, Behavioral factors influence how people act or perform with in an
organization
•The company structure, policies, and procedures, management
effectiveness and interactions between colleagues
•All these elements can inspire employees to work harder or contribute
to the success of the organization
•[Link] culture:
•A system of shared meanings, values and common beliefs,
held by the organizational members, that will determine to a
large degree of , how they think & how they act towards
each other, and also on challenges & opportunities facing by
organization
•The way we do things around here like values, symbols,
rituals, myths and practices
•Organizational culture refers to a system of assumptions,
values, and beliefs
•That will show employees what is appropriate and
inappropriate behavior
•These values have a strong influence on employee behavior
as well as organizational performance
•An organizational culture defines the proper way to behave
with in the organization
•This culture consists of beliefs and values that are established
by leaders
•They are communicated and reinforced through various methods
•Ultimately it will leads to shaping of employee perception,
behaviors and understanding
•Organizational culture is the collection of values, expectations
and practices, that will guide the actions of all team members
•A great culture encourages positive traits, that will lead to
improved performance
•You can watch company’s culture in actions
•How a CEO responds to a crisis, how a manger corrects an employee
mistake
•How a team will adapt to new customer demands
•If work place culture aligns with your employees, they will feel more
comfortable, supported and valued
•75% of the workers consider company’s culture before
applying
•The culture of an organization is one of the top indicators of employee
satisfaction
•Sources of Organizational culture:
•The organizational founder
•Past practices of the organization
•Continuation of the organizational culture:
•Recruitment of employees who fit
•Behaviour of top management
•Socialization of new employees to help them adapt to the
culture
•How employees learn culture:
•By Stories:
•Narratives of significant events or actions of people that
convey the spirit of the organization
•By Rituals
•Repetitive sequences of activities that express and reinforce
the values of the organization
•By Material symbols:
•Physical assets distinguishing the organization
•By Language:
•Acronyms and jargon of terms, phrases, and word meanings
specific to an organization
•Characteristics of the organizational culture:
•Organizational culture has a number of important characteristics
•[Link] behavioural regularities:
•When organizational participants interact with one another, they use
common language, terminology and rituals related to deference and
demeanour
•[Link]:
•Standards of behaviour exist, including guidelines on how much work
to do, which in many organizations come down to “ do not do too
much & do not do too little”
•[Link] values:
•There are major values that the organization advocates and
expects the participants to share
•Typical examples are high product quality, low absenteeism
and high efficiency
•[Link]:
•There are policies that set forth the organizations beliefs
about how employees and customers are to be treated
•[Link]:
•There are strict guidelines related to getting along in the
organization
•Newcomers must learn those ropes in order tobe accepted as full-
fledged members of the group
•[Link] climate:
•This is an overall feeling that is conveyed by the physical layout,
the way participants interact, and the way member of the
organization conduct them selves with customers or other outsiders
•Uniformity of culture:
•A common misconception is that an organization has a uniform
culture
•All organizations have culture in the sense that they are embedded
or rooted in specific societal cultures and are part of them
•According to this view, an organizational culture is a common
perception held by the organizations members
•Everyone in the organization would have to share this perception
•However, all may not do so to the same degree
•As a result, there can be a dominant culture as well as
subcultures throughout a typical organization
•Cultural Liabilities or responsibilities to clear off:
•Barriers or hurdles to change
•Barriers to diversity
•Barriers to acquisitions & mergers
•Creating & Maintaining the culture:
•How an organizational cultures start:
•Organizational cultures can develop in a number of different
ways, the process usually involves some version of the
following steps:
•A single person or founder has an idea for a new enterprise
•The founder brings in one or more other key people and
creates a core group that shares a common vision with the
founder
•That is all in this core group believe that the idea is a good
one, is workable, is worth running some risks for, and is
worth the investment of time, money, and energy that will be
required
•The founding core group begins to act in concert to create
an organization by raising funds, obtaining patents,
incorporating, locating space, building, and so on
•At this point others are brought into the organization and a
common history begins to be built
 • [Link] systems:
•Wilson in 1995 defines reward system as follows:
•A reward system is any process within an organization that
encourages, reinforces, or compensates people for taking a
particular set of actions
•It may be formal or informal, cash or non cash, immediate or
delayed
•This reward and recognition system in industry was there in
the years of 1930’s
•During that time E . F. Mac Donald and Edward Maritz
merchants, who sell their jewellery, watches to corporations,
gave incentives and service awards for their employees on
those days
•Employee reward systems refer to, it is a program set up by
company, to reward high performance, and motivate
employees on individual level and group level
•These rewards are separate from salary, and monetary in nature
•Reward system refers to all the monetary, non monetary
benefits that an organization provides for its employees, in
exchange for the high performance
•Monetary rewards include cash awards, profit sharing plans
and stock options etc.,
•In many industries monetary incentives are enough to get
maximum productivity from employees
•This type of reward system works best with employees who
are motivated by cash
•Every company needs a strategic reward system for
employees
•That will address the four areas that are compensation,
benefits, recognition and appreciation
•Reward schemes include extrinsic and intrinsic rewards
•Extrinsic rewards are items such as financial payments and
working conditions that the employee receives as a part of
the job
•Intrinsic reward relate to satisfaction that is derived from
performing the job
•Such as personal fulfilment and a sense of contributing
something to the society
•Purpose of Reward:
•To recognize individual and team efforts
•To re-enforce positive behaviours
•To create a better working environment
•To have a system that recognizes as many people as possible
•Categories:
•As referred by Michael Armstrong in 2007, all aspects of
rewards namely base pay, contract pay, employee benefits
and non-financial rewards which include intrinsic rewards
from the work itself are linked together and treated as an
integrated and coherent whole
•Types of Rewards:
•a. Payment by result
•b. Individual / group performance related pay
•c. Skill competency based pay
•d. Cafeteria or flexible benefit system
•e. Time rates
•[Link] by result:
•It links pay to the quantity of the individuals output, pay is usually linked
to the number of units of work produced
•Advantages:
•Motivated to put effort so he can increase his income
•It is fair because the reward is related to the level of production, wages
are linked to production and less supervision is required
•Disadvantages:
•It is difficult to measure output in certain jobs, safety standards could be
compromised
•[Link] / Group performance- related:
•It considers not only results or output but also actual behaviour in the
job
•It consists of a lump sum, or a bonus as a percentage of basic salary with
quality of performance determing the magnitude of the percentage
increase
•Advantages:
•It combines goals with emotions, there is a congruency between
organisational and personal goals, the remuneration packaging is fair, the
culture of organization is supportive, employees receive useful benefits
•Disadvantages:
•There is not attempts made to relae individual performance
to organisational objectives
•Appraisal is not conducted fairly open communication
between manager and subordinates is discouraged
•Poor performancers are punished
•[Link]- competency- based pay:
•It focuses on inputs that consists of knowledge, skills and
competencies injected into the job by employees
•Advantages:
•Fair amount of consultation and employee participation,
there is a strong encouragement in changing behaviour, there
is an appropriate level of training and much time is invested
in the process
•Disadvantages:
•Skills obsolesce which could be arise in condition of
changing technology, it is possible that this system do not
pay attention to the skills that are no longer significant or
they are not required at all
•[Link] or flexible benefit system:
•The flexible benefit system is a departure from the
traditional model of single system of remuneration for
everybody(Meyer - 2000)
•It is calculated within an overall remuneration or
compensation package and it includes a lot of benefits
•Advantages:
•Employees choose benefits to meet their needs, during
periods of change, it is an harmonise rewards, employees are
given a sense of control and involvement, employers are
seen as more responsive to employees needs
•Disadvantages:
•Choices can cause problems, the schemes can be complex to
operate
•[Link] rates:
•This reward system is related to the number of hours
worked and it experience rather than performance gives
importance on the value of the task rather than on the value
of the skills, abilities the employee brings to the job, or on
the quantity or quality of performance
•Advnatages:
•It is open to inspection, it creates stability an dretnetion of
employees
•System is easy to administer and allow labour cost to be
predicted
•It does not emphasise quantity of output to the determinant
of reward
•Disadvantages:
•Employees are not motivated to become more prodictive
•This happens because both good and bad performers are
rewarded for the reason why they are in the same grade
 •Organizational Context:
•Impact of Organizational Design on OB:
•Organizational Design is a process of constructing and
adjusting an organization’s structure
•So that a company can operate in the most effective &
efficient way in order to achieve its goals
•Organization's structure refers towards the linking of
departments and formal arrangement of jobs within the
organization
•Organizational structure defines the purpose accountabilities
and key performance indicators for each business function
and role
•Organizational design involves decisions regarding six
elements of the organizational structure
•The structure or design of an organization clarifies the role of
each and every member in the organization
•So that each member knows what they are supposed to do, for
what they are responsible for, and to whom they report
•Organizational design is a process of aligning the structure of
an organization with its objectives
•Its ultimate aim is improving efficiency and effectiveness
•Good organizational structure and design helps to improve
communication, increase productivity and inspire innovation
•It creates an environment where people can work effectively
•A company’s organizational design or structure will
indicate:
•The level of project management
•Who will make ultimate project decisions
•The communication of project goals and tasks
•How the project manager works with his team
•Elements of Organizational structures:
•Work specialization: it describes the degree to which activities
in an organization are subdivided into separate jobs
•Departmentalization: the basis by which jobs are grouped
together
•Chain of command : Who will report to whom and receive
commands from
•Span of control: it refers to the number of subordinates under
the manager’s direct control
•Centralization and Decentralization: Degree to which
decision making is concentrated at a single point in the
organization
•Formalization: The degree to which jobs within the
organizations are standardized & extent to which employee
behavior is guided by rules and regulations
•Types of organizational Designs:
•[Link] organizational Design
•[Link] organizational Design
•[Link] organizational Design
•[Link] organizational Design
•[Link] organizational design:
•Simple structure: Low departmentalization, wide spans of
control, centralized authority, little formalization
•Functional structure: Departmentalization by function
such as operations, finance, human resources, and product
research and development
•Divisional structure: Composed of separate business units
or divisions with limited autonomy under the coordination
and control of the parent corporation
•[Link] organizational designs:
•Team structures: The entire organization is made up of work
groups or self managed teams of empowered employees
•Matrix structure:
•Specialists for different functional departments are assigned to
work on projects led by project managers. Matrix participants
have two managers
•Project structures: Employees work continuously on
projects, moving on to another project as each project is
completed Ex: Bahria towns- Riaz Malik
•[Link] organizational design:
•An organization that has developed the capacity to continuously learn,
adapt and change through the practice of knowledge management by
employees is known as learning organization
•There are two types of learning organization according to Chris
Argyris
•Single loop learning:
•It involves improving the organizations capacity to achieve known
objectives
•It is associated with routine and behavioural learning
•Under single loop the organization is learning without significant change in
its basic assumptions
•Ex: Thermostat - detects temperature - and maintain accordingly
•Double loop learning:
•Revaluates the nature of the organization’s objectives and the values and
beliefs surrounding them
•This type of learning involves changing the organization’s culture
•Importantly double loop consists of the organizations’s learning how to
learn
•Ex:Thermostat - Which temperature is best for the room? After detecting
•Traits of learning organization:
•Creative Tension: Serves as a catalyst or motivational need
to learn
•This tension caused by the gap between the organizations
vision and reality and suggests the learning organizations
continually questioning and challenging the status quo or
existing state
•System thinking:
•The system thinking of learning organizations recognizes the shared
vision of employees throughout the whole organization and the
openness to new ideas
•Organizational culture:
•An organizational culture favourable to learning and set
mechanisms in place for suggestions, teams, empowerment and
most subtly but importantly empathy
•An open team based organizational design that empowers
employees
•[Link] organizational design:
•Following are the types in modern organizational design
•a. Horizontal organizational design
•b. Hollow & modular organizational design (contemporary)
•c. Network organizational design
•d. Virtual organizational design
•a. Horizontal organizational design:
•Anand and Daft noted that the horizontal organization advocates the
dispensing of internal boundaries that are an impediment to effective
business performance
•If the traditional structure can be likened to a pyramid, the metaphor
that best applies to the horizontal organization is a pizza – flat, but
packed with all the necessary ingredients
•The modern environment covered in the last chapter has stimulated the
change to horizontal designs that better facilitate cooperation,
teamwork, and a customer orientation rather than a functional
orientation
•Frank Ostroff, Mc. Kinsey a company consultant along with
colleague Douglas smith, is given credit for developing
some of the following guiding principles that define
horizontal organization design
•Organization revolves around the process, not the task:
•Instead of creating a structure around the traditional
functions, the organization is build around its three to five
core processes
•Each process has an owner & specific performance goals
•The hierarchy is flattened:
•To reduce levels of supervision or command & control,
fragmented tasks are combined, work that fails to add value is
eliminated, and activities within each process are cut to the
minimum
•Teams are used to manage everything:
•Self manged teams are the building blocks of the organization
•The teams have a common purpose and are held accountable for
measuring performance goals
•Customers drive performance:
•Customer satisfaction, not profits or stock appreciation is
the primary driver and measure of performance
•Team performance is rewarded:
•The reward systems are geared toward team results, not just
individual performance
•Employees are rewarded for multiple skill development
rather than just specialized expertise
•Supplier and customer contact is maximized:
•Employees are brought into direct, regular contact with suppliers and
customers.
•Where relevant supplier & customer representatives may be brought in
as full working members of in house teams
•All employees need to be fully informed and trained:
•Employees should be provided all data, not just sanitized information
on a need to know basis
•However they also need to be trained how to analyze and use the data to
make effective decisions
•b. Hollow organization design:
•When the management outsourced its selected tasks,
functions and processes and left with what has been to focus
termed as Hollow organization design
•Organizations in manufacturing of toys, apparel, shoes Ex:
Nike and Reebok moved to hollow designs that outsourced
the entire process of making of their products and left them
to focus on product design and marketing
•Anand and daft summarized the advantages of this design in
terms of cost savings, tapping into best sources of
specialization and technology, supplier competition and
technology, and flexibility
•But also the disadvantages of loss of in house skills and
innovation, reduced control over supply and quality and
even the threat of being entirely supplanted by suppliers
•Modular organizational design:
•The modular designs are also based on outsourcing, but
instead of the entire process being taken offshore, as in hollow
designs Ex: manufacturing, logistics, or customer service
•The modular design consists of decomposable product chunks
provided by internal and external subcontractors
•Anand an Daft summarize the advantages of modular designs
in terms of cost, speed of response to market changes and
innovation through recombination of module in different ways
•Nissan’s modular design is know for being very efficient
because parts such as the frame, dashboard, and seats are
made by subcontractors and then shipped to the Nissan for
assembly
•[Link] work designs:
•A small core organization that outsources its major business
functions Ex: manufacturing, in order to concentrate on what it
does best
•All three of these contemporary designs are sometimes subsumed
under the single term Network Designs because of the
boundaryless conditions created by advanced information
technology an dglobalization
•This involves a unique combination of strategy, structure and
management processes
•Delayered highly flexible an controlled by market
mechanisms rather than administrative procedures, firms
with this new structure arrayed themselves on an industry
value chain according to their core competencies, obtaining
complementary resources through strategic alliances and
outsourcing
•[Link] organization:
•An organization that consists of a small core of full time employees
and that temporarily hires specialists to work on opportunities that
arise
•Highly centralized & No departmentalization
•Allow them to contract
•Manufacturing, distribution, marketing that to be done better or more
cheaply
•The managers in virtual structures spend their time
coordinating & controlling external relations
•Virtual organizations can help competitiveness in the global
economy
•The alliances and partnerships with other organizations can
extent worldwide, the spatial and temporal interdependence
easily transcend boundaries, and the flexibility allows easy
reassignment and reallocation to take quick advantage of
shifting opportunities in global markets
•The key attributes of the virtual organization are as followed:
•Technology:
•Informational networks will help far flung companies and entrepreneurs
link up and work together from start to finish
•The partnerships will be based on electronic contracts to keep the lawyers
away and speed the linkups
•Opportunism:
•Partnerships will be less permanent, less formal and more opportunistic
•Companies will band together to meet all specific market opportunities and
more often than not fall apart once the need evaporates
•No borders:
•This new organizational model redefines the traditional boundaries of
the company
•More cooperation among competitors, suppliers and customers makes it
harder to determine where one company ends and another begins
•Trust:
•These relationships make companies far more reliant on each other and
require far more trust than ever before
•They share a sense of co destiny, meaning that the fate of each partner is
dependent on the other
•Excellence:
•Because each partner brings its core competence to the
effort, it may be possible to create a best of everything
organization
•Every function and process could be world class something
that no single company could achieve
•Part : b) Cognitive Processes-I:
Perception and Attribution:
•[Link] of perception and
Importance of Perception:
•Nature of Perception:
•Perception is the sensory experience of the world, we have five
senses, sight, smell, taste, hear, touch
•With these senses we recognize environmental stimuli and act in
response to these stimuli
•Perception is the process through which the information from
outside environment is selected, received, organised and interpreted
to make it meaningful to you
•This input of meaningful information results in decision and actions
•Perception may be defined as a process by which individuals
organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give
meaning to their environment
•According to Joseph Reitz he defined as perception includes all
those processes by which an individual receives information about
his environment, seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting and smelling
•The study of these perpetual processes shows tht their functioning
is affected by three classes of variables, the objects or events
being perceived, the environment in which perception occurs and
the individual doing the perceiving
•Perception is the act of seeing what is there to be seen, but
what is seen is influenced by the perceiver, the object and its
environment
•Perception is an intellectual process of transforming sensory
stimuli into meaningful information and interpreting
something that we see or hear in our mind and use it later to
judge and give a verdict on a situation or person or group
etc.,
•Perception may be defined as a process by which individuals
organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give
meaning to their environment
•According to Joseph Reitz he defined as perception includes all
those processes by which an individual receives information about
his environment, seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting and smelling
•The study of these perpetual processes shows tht their functioning
is affected by three classes of variables, the objects or events
being perceived, the environment in which perception occurs and
the individual doing the perceiving
•Thus peoples actions, emotions, thoughts or feelings are
triggered by the perception of their surroundings
•Perception has been defined in a variety of ways, it basically
refers to the manner in which a person experiences the world
•Perception is an automatic process and works in the same
way with in each individual yet it typically yields different
perceptions
•The term perception may be defined as
•It is a process by which an individual select, organize and
interpret the inputs or data, from surrounding environment to
draw meaning form it or comes to a conclusion from it
•Perception contains 3 elements
•[Link] 2. Target [Link]
•Perceiver is the person, who is making efforts to interpret
the input or data
•Target refers to the event, object or person about which or whom
interpretations are made by the perceiver
•Situation refers to circumstances, under which perception is carried
out
•Accurate perceptions are very much essential in an organization
due to the following reasons
•For motivating employees and improving their performance levels,
these are the two main responsibilities of mangers
•Accurate perceptions regarding employees are very much essential
for motivating employees
•To treat employees fairly and equitably, in terms of
providing bonuses and other rewards
• Managers must make accurate perceptions regarding
employees performances
•In order to act in an ethical manner, accurate perceptions
about employees of an organization, is very important
•Importance of Perception:
•Perception is a subjective, active and creative process through
which we assign meaning to sensory information to understand
ourselves and others
•It can be defined as our recognition and interpretation of sensory
information
•It also includes how we respond to the information
•It is the process by which any one detects and interprets
information from the external world by means of the sensory
receptors
•It is our sensory experience of the world around us and involves
both the recognition of environmental stimuli and actions in
response to these stimuli
•Through the perceptual process we gain information about the
properties and elements of the environment that are critical to our
survival
•Perception not only creates our experience of the world around us,
it allows us to act within our environment
•Perception refers to, in which manner a person experiences the
world, it is the sensory experience of the world by a person
•Perception is very important in understanding human
behavior, Because every person perceives the world, and
approaches life problems differently
•Perception helps to shape up the personality of a person, and
how they act in certain situations
•It is an automatic process, and it works in the same way,
within each and every individual, but yields different
perceptions
•With the help of perception, the needs of various people can be
determined, because peoples perception is influenced by their
needs
•Perception is very important for the manager who wants to avoid
making errors when dealing with people and events in the work
setting
•This problem is made more complicated by the fact that different
people perceive the same situation differently
•To deal with the subordinates effectively the managers must
understand their perception properly
•It is vitally important if we want to get along with others to
try to see things from their perspective or walk in their shoes
for a while
•If we walk in their shoes we will gain a new perspective
about things and in that understand the other and also can
love and help the other more appropriately
•Thus for understanding human behaviour, it is very
important to understand their perception, that is how they
perceive the different situations
•Peoples behaviour is based on their perceptions of what
reality is, not on reality itself
•The world as it is perceived is the world that is important for
understanding human behaviour
•These can affect how they will respond to certain things like
stressful situations, their performance at tasks, and even
their creativity
•The way we view the world and everything around us, has a
direct effect on our thoughts, actions, and behavior
•Perceptual learning occurs, through sensory interaction with the
environment or through practice in performing specific sensory
tasks
•Perception shapes how we understand, how we communicate, how
others communicate
•Perception results in learning information that is directly relevant to
the goals at hand
•Information relevant to the immediate goals
•Perception is essential in understanding the organizational behavior,
like learning, motivation etc.,
•Perception helps to determine the kind of information to be
attended, the way it is to be taken based on ones knowledge
•Perception is virtual, this process is necessary to be
understood while studying OB
•Perception has importance in the organization, it is the base
of all actions
•Peoples perception and attitudes are formed through out the
lifetime, as a consequence of experience and socializing
•[Link] selectivity and
Organizational behavior:
•Under the process of perception, it has been pointed out that, it is a
selective process with your perception
•In everybody’s environment there are various stimuli, these stimuli
may be in the form of objects, events, people etc.,
•An individual can not get attracted towards all these stimuli, he will
be attracted towards only stimuli, which he has interest
•The stimuli towards which he gets attracted are selected, and others
are ignored
•Ex: When we read a news paper, we get attracted towards only
some of the news and ignore the remaining news
•What are the factors that will influence the perceptual selectivity
•There are various factors influencing it, they are divided into
two categories
•a).External Factors of perceptual selectivity
•[Link] [Link] [Link] [Link] of the object
[Link] [Link] and familiarity
•b).Internal Factors of perceptual selectivity
•[Link]-Concept [Link] [Link] [Link] [Link]
Disposition [Link] [Link]
•a).External Factors of perceptual selectivity:
•These factors are related to the external environment or stimuli
•External characteristics of the stimuli that will attract a person and he
selects them, otherwise he overlooks them
•[Link]:
•Big size or small size of the stimuli, large size attract people quickly
•There is a great possibility of the perception of such stimuli being
selected
•Ex: When we read a book we will attract towards large size headings
•[Link]:
•Intensity means that some stimuli are brighter, louder, stronger
in odour and more colourful than the other
•Some body gets attracted to a loud sound, and brighter stimuli
will attract people more
•Ex: Bright packing in business, loud advertisements
•[Link]:
•Repetition factor indicates that, the repetition of a stimuli has
a particular attraction
•When a particular stimulus repeatedly appears before us,
naturally we start taking interest in it
•Ex: Businessmen display the advertisement of their products
repeatedly before us
•A person desirous of getting a job meets the personnel
manager, again and again repeatedly
•[Link] of the object:
This factor tell us that people get attracted more to the
moving stimuli, instead of the fixed stimuli
•That is why there is a greater possibility of perception about
the moving stimuli and their selection
•Ex: Flashing neon light sign boards displayed in the market
or at cross roads will attract the persons more
•[Link]:
•The use of background is made, to make a stimulus more
attractive for the people
•The stimulus either it is object, event, or person appears
different in a different background
•[Link] and familiarity:
•Novelty means the presence of new stimuli in the existing environment
•Creating novelty or newness in an old environment, to attract the attention
of the perceivers Ex: Old wine in a new bottle
•If a foreign faculty appointed to teach OB, students will attract towards
him
•Familiarity means if a well known faculty goes to different colleges to
teach the same subject, he will also attract students attention
•Attracting the attention of the perceivers, by sending a known or familiar
person in a new environment
•[Link] and familiarity:
•Novelty means the presence of new stimuli in the existing environment
•Creating novelty or newness in an old environment, to attract the
attention of the perceivers Ex: Old wine in a new bottle
•If a foreign faculty appointed to teach OB, students will attract towards
him
•Familiarity means if a well known faculty goes to different colleges to
teach the same subject, he will also attract students attention
•Attracting the attention of the perceivers, by sending a known or familiar
person in a new environment
•Ex: If a person self concept doubts his ability, he will fear
about the stimuli or outer world
•If he is confident about him self, he will accept the stimuli
happily
•The more we understand ourselves, the more easily we
understand others also
•Correct your self concept, that will influences accurate
perception
•[Link]:
•A persons belief in external environment or stimuli, it helps
him in the selection of the stimuli
•Any person thinks about a stimulus, as per his belief in it,
and not what actually it is
•A person accepts facts after duly censoring them
•So that his present belief in them remains intact or not
damaged
•[Link]:
•The selection of the stimuli available in the environment is
influenced by our needs
•If a person wishes to attain some particular achievement
•He will get attracted towards that stimuli only, which can
fulfil his wish or need
•[Link]:
•We have an expectation of a particular behaviour form
everybody
•We select them on the basis of our expectation or behaviour
expected out of them
•Ex: If we expect the use of a rough or foul language, by a
particular section of people, our relationship with them will
depend on that expectation
•Our expectation may be fully right or fully wrong
•[Link] Disposition:
•A person gets attracted towards a known, than unknown object or
persons
•A person attracted quickly towards things which he already knows, he
ignores other things about which he knowns nothing
•Ex: There are two lectures are going on before a religious man, one is
religious and other one is about economic condition of the country
•He will attract towards the religious lecture because his is familiar
with the vocabulary of the lecture and he will easily understand it
•This happens because of individuals response disposition
•[Link]:
•Selection of the stimuli available in the environment, is
influenced by the interest of the perceiver
•Ex: A doctor will get attracted towards the health of the
person
•A lecturer will get attracted towards the person pronouncing
words wrongly
•[Link] or learned experience :
•The attraction of a person towards some stimuli, depends on his
learned or past experience
•Learned experience influences the perception of any individual
•On the basis of learned experience, whatever a person expects to see or
hear, he will see or hear the same
•In the context of organization, the learned experience of an employee,
influences his perception
•Ex: The decision making by an employee is affected by his
specialisation
•[Link] perception or Interpersonal
perception:
•Perception is the sensory experience of the world, we have
five senses, sight, smell, taste, hear, touch
•With these senses we recognize environmental stimuli, and
act in response to these stimuli
•Stimulus or stimuli is anything that can evokes a specific
functional reaction, or trigger a physical or behavioural
change
•Perception is an intellectual process of transforming sensory
stimuli, into meaningful information
•Social Perception is the study of how people form impressions, and
make inferences or conclusions, about other people personalities in
this society
•Social perception is a processes by which a person uses the
behaviour of others to form opinions or make inferences about
those individuals, particularly regarding their motives, attitudes, or
values
•Social perception refers to the ability to make accurate
interpretations and inferences about other people from their general
physical appearance, verbal, and nonverbal patterns of
communication
•Things like facial expressions, tone of voice, hand gestures,
and body position or movement are all signals , people with
higher levels of social perception pick up on to work out
what other people are thinking, feeling or are likely to do
next
•Having at least one person with higher levels of social
perception on a team has been found to increase the
likelihood of better performance of the team and of the team
developing
•Interpreting something that we see or hear in our mind
•And use it later to judge and give a verdict (decision or
opinion or a judgement)on a situation or on a person or on a
group etc.,
•People learn about others feelings and emotions, by picking
up information from their facial expressions, tonality or tone
of voice, hand and body movement etc.,
•That information is used, to form opinions or make
inferences or doubts about those individuals
•Social perception refers to identifying and utilizing the
social signals, to make judgements about social roles, rules,
relationships, context or the characteristics or
trustworthiness of others
•Important personal characteristics of the perceiver, that will
influence the way he perceives others are:
•Familiarity with the person perceived
•Familiarity of the culture of the person perceived
•Attitudes, moods, self concept and thinking pattern
•To understand the impact of personal Attributions or situational
attributions
•Social perceivers must integrate all the available information to
form an unified impression or conclusion
•[Link] Theories:
•Attributions are the inferences(opinions, decisions,
judgements) that people will make, about the causes of their
and others behaviour and events
•People make attributions to understand their experiences
•These attributions strongly influence the way people interact
with others
•Attribution is a term used in psychology, which deals with
how individuals perceive the causes of every day
experiences, either external or internal
•In psychology Attribution is a judgement we make, about the causes of
another persons behaviour
•Attribution theory will explain these attribution processes, which we use to
understand why an event or behaviour occurred
•Ex: A new friend cancel the plan to meet at coffee shop
•How do you assume that
•a) some thing unavoidable came up b)That friend is a flaky person or
unreliable person
•Do you assume that, your friend behaviour was situational related to external
circumstances or
•It is Dispositional related to inherent internal characteristics
•Attribution theories will explain, how human beings
evaluate and determine the cause of other peoples behaviour
•Attribution theories focus on the process of determining
• whether a behaviour is situationally caused(caused by
external forces) or
•Is it dispositionally caused (caused by internal
characteristics)
•[Link] Heider - Common sense psychology theory-1958
•[Link] E Jones and Keith E Davis - correspondent
Inference Theory - 1965
•[Link] Kelley’s – Covariation Model -1967
•[Link] Weiner’s –Three Dimensional Model-1974
•[Link] Heider - Common sense psychology theory-1958:
•Fritz Heider put forward his theories of attribution in his
book Psychology of Interpersonal Relations 1958
•Heider was interested in examining how individuals
determine whether another person’s behaviour is internally
caused or externally caused
•According to Heider, behaviour is a product of capacity and
motivation
•Capacity refers to whether we are able to enact a particular
behaviour, that means whether our innate characteristics and our
present environment make that behaviour possible
•Motivation refers to our intentions as well as how much effort we
can apply
•Heider contended that both capacity and motivation are necessary
for a particular behaviour to occur
•Ex: Your ability to run in a marathon depends on both your
physical fitness and the weather that day(your capacity) as well as
your desire and drive to push through the race (your motivation)
•[Link] E Jones and Keith E Davis - correspondent Inference
Theory - 1965
•This theory suggests that if someone behaves in a socially desirable way,
we do not tend to infer much about them as a person
•Ex: If you ask your friend for a pencil and she gives one to you, you are
not likely to infer much about your friends character from the behaviour,
because most of the people would do the same thing in a given situation,
it is a socially desirable response.
•However if your friend refuses to allow you to borrow a pencil, you are
likely to infer something about her innate characteristics due to this
socially undesirable response
•Also according to this theory, we do not tend to conclude much about an
individual’s internal motivation if they are acting in a particular social role
•Ex:A sales person might be friendly and outgoing at work, it is a part of
the job requirements, we will not attribute the behaviour to an innate
characteristic
•On the other hand if an individual displays behaviour, that is a typical in a
given social situation, we tend to be more likely to attribute their behaviour
to their innate disposition
•Ex: If we see some one behaving in a quiet, reserved manner at a loud and
boisterous party, we are more likely to conclude that this person is
introverted
•[Link] Kelley’s – Covariation Model -1967
•According to psychologist Harold Kelley’s covariation model we
tend to use three types of information when we are deciding
whether someone’s behaviour was internally or externally
motivated
•a)Consensus: An agreement made by a group
•Whether the person acts similarly in a given situation
•If other people would display the same behaviour, we tend to
interpret the behaviour as being less indicative of an individuals
innate characteristics
•b)Distinctiveness:
•Whether the person acts similarly across other situations
•If a person only acts in a certain way in one situation, the behaviour can
probably be attributed to the situation rather than the person
•c) Consistency:
•Whether someone acts the same way in a given situation each time it occurs
•If someone's behaviour in a given situation is inconsistent from one time to
the next, their behaviour becomes more difficult to attribute
•When there are high levels of consensus, distinctiveness and consistency,
we tend to attribute the behaviour to the situation
•[Link] Weiner’s –Three Dimensional Model-1974
•Bernard Weiner’s model suggests that people examine three
dimensions when attempting to understand the causes of a
behaviour: Locus, Stability and controllability
•Locus refers to whether the behaviour was caused by
internal or external factors
•Stability refers to whether the behaviour will happen again
in the future
•Controllability refers to whether someone is able to change the
outcome of an event by expending more effort
•According to Weiner, the attributions people make effect their
emotions
•Ex: People are more likely to feel pride, if they believe that they
succeeded due to internal characteristics, such an innate talent
•Rather than external factors, such as luck, research on a similar
theory
•Explanatory style: it has found that an individual’s explanatory style
is linked to their health and levels of stress
•[Link] Errors:
•The fundamental attribution error refers to an individuals
tendency to attribute another’s actions to their character or
personality, while attributing their behaviour to external
situational factors outside of their control
•The fundamental attribution error exists because of how
people perceive the world
•While you have at least some idea of your character,
motivations, and situational factors that affect your day to day,
you rarely know everything that’s going on with someone else
•Similar to confirmation and overconfidence biases, its
impact on business and life can be reduced by taking several
measures
•Ex: In working with your colleagues, you form a general
impression of their character based on pieces of their
character based on pieces of a situation, but never see the
whole picture, your brain tends to use limited information to
make judgements
•When we try to determine the cause of someone’s behaviour, we
are not always accurate
•In fact psychologists have identified two key errors that we
commonly make when attempting to attribute behaviour
•Fundamental Attribution error:
•Which refers to the tendency to over- emphasize the role of
personal traits in shaping behaviours
•Ex: If some one is rude to you, you may assume that they are
generally a rude person, rather than assuming that they were under
stress that day
•Self serving Bias:
•It refers to the tendency to give ourselves credit(i.e. make an
internal attribution when things go well
•but blame the situation or bad luck i.e. make an external
attribution) when things go poorly
•According to recent research, people who are experiencing
depression may not show the self serving bias, and may even
experience a reverse bias
•How to avoid Fundamental Attribution Error FAE:
•The fundamental attribution error is so prevalent because it is
rooted in psychology
•So, completely overcoming it can be difficult
•One tool that can be helpful in combating FAE – Fundamental
Attribution Error is gratitude
•When you become resentful at someone for a bad quality they
demonstrate, try to make a list of five positive qualities the
person also exhibits
•This will help balance out your perspective and can help
you view your co worker as a whole person instead of
through the lens of a single negative quality
•[Link] of Control:
•In psychology, locus of control is considered to be an important
aspect of personality
•This concept was developed by Julian Rotter in 1950’s
•Locus of control refers to how strongly people believe that they
have control over the situations and experiences that affect their
lives
•In education locus of control typically refers to how students
perceive the causes of their academic success or failure in school
• perception, about the underlying main causes of events in his or
her life
•Students with an Internal Locus of control generally believe
that their success or failure is a result of the effort and hard
work they invest in their education
•Students with an external locus of control generally believe
that their successes or failures result from external factors
beyond their control, such as luck, fate, circumstances,
injustice, bias or teachers who are unfair
•That means, do you believe that
•your destiny is controlled by yourself, by your qualities like
personal control, self determination etc., or
•By the external forces such as fate, God or powerful others
etc.,
Internal locus of control External locus of control

Individuals believes that Individuals believes that his

his or her behavior is or her behavior is guided by
guided by his or her own God grace, fate, luck other
personal decisions and external circumstances
efforts, control, capability,
hard work, practice etc.,
•Internal locus of control orientation is a belief that the
outcomes of our actions are depends on what we do
•External locus of control orientation is a belief that the
outcomes of our actions are depends on out side forces
•An internal locus of control orientation needs to be matched
by competence, self efficacy and opportunity
•So that the person is able to be successful and experience
the sense of personal control and responsibility
•Over internal locus of control people who are lack of competence, self
efficacy and opportunity can become psychologically un healthy and
unstable, neurotic, anxious and depressed
•Internal locus people need to have a realistic sense of their circle of
influence or reality to experience success
•External locus people can lead easy going, relaxed happy lives
•External and internal locus of control is present in all of us and indeed
can exist at the same time within us
•Many people can shift back and forward between them, but they will
always have one dominate control type within them
•17. Impression Management IM:
•Impression Management Theory:
•IM theory was first conceptualized by Erving Goffman in
1959
•His work was published as a Book “ The presentation of self
in every day life”, later this concept was expanded in 1967
•Impression Management it is also called as self presentation
•It is the conscious or sub conscious process in which people
attempt to influence others perception about a person, object
or event by regulating and controlling information in social
interactions
•Impression management is a conscious or unconscious
effort towards influencing the perceptions, decisions, and
opinions of other people
•Impression management is the process in which the people
try to influence the perceptions or impressions others have
about them by regulating and controlling information
•People tend to present a positive image of themselves to
others
•This also plays a role in the business world
•In other words it is a process of controlling or managing
impression of others, in social interactions
•Let us look at some of the types of impression management
to understand the concept
•People will always present themselves as positively as
possible to others
•Most people often wonder what others will think of them
when they do or don’t do or say something
•In a company’s marketing activities sales people will try
their best to present their product or service as positively as
possible
•It is their job to manage the impressions of the public and
potential consumers to maximise the results
•Impression Management Techniques:
•There are Seven impression management techniques, these
techniques are all used in daily life at work, at home and
during other occasions
•[Link] [Link] [Link] [Link] [Link]
promotion [Link] [Link]
•[Link]:
•Conformity means being accepted and is intended to let
others enjoy the surroundings or the people in the
surroundings
•This technique is applied by companies when they have
employees come together to work together and in doing so
ensure that the employees feel accepted and comfortable
•[Link]:
•Excuses generally refer to a persons explanation about a
negative or unacceptable event
•This explanation is given to avoid a severe punishment or
judgement
•Excuses are often made, when being late for a meeting or
when a driver is fined for failing to wear his seatbelt
•[Link]:
•Acclaim means proudly greeting the audience because
someone knows he or she did their job perfectly
•Someone does this with a sense of excellence about himself
•In the business world, this could refer to a project team
member who is praised by the project manager because of a
good idea or initiative
•This encourages other employees to work harder and better
•[Link]:
•Flattery means excessively complementing someone else to
appear perceptive and likeable
•Flattery is an assertive social technique for managing others
impressions to increase ones social attractiveness
•This is done by saying things that flatter, praise or compliment
the other
•This impression technique is especially common in the online
marketing world
•[Link] promotion:
•Self promotion is about emphasising ones best characteristics
or downplaying ones shortcomings
•This draws the attention to ones own achievements
•This phenomenon is particularly frequent in the business
world
•Ex: A sales man who tells his boss and to colleagues, that it
takes three years to reach the number of sales transactions, I
have conducted it in six weeks
•[Link]:
•Favours is another popular technique, both in business and
in everyday life
•Favours are about doing something nice for others to receive
acceptance and approval from them
•Ex:A salesman of luxury cars could offer his customer
tickets to the theatre because he cant use them himself
•[Link]:
•Association concerns improving or protecting ones image by
managing information about people and things withwhich one
is associated
•Ex:An applicant could tell the interviewer, that such a
coincidence your boss an I were roommates at university
•Association also means collaborating with others to strengthen
and protect each other with regard to the information and
image of the people involved in the association
•How do you practice Impression Management:
•There are several guidelines for managing the impressions
you make on others
•[Link] yourself [Link] mindful [Link] emotions
[Link] etiquette rules [Link] self confident [Link]
positive
•[Link] yourself:
•Self Awareness is one of the most important things in successful
impression management and authenticity
•Sociologist Goffman proposed a dramaturgical theory in which he said
that human beings are merely a combination of various roles we adopt
•It is important to have a sense of self worth, who am i? what do I value?
What do I stand for?
•It is important to have a sense of self worth to prevent that we turn into a
chameleon who adopts to everything and everyone around them
•It is not necessary to always go along with the masses
•[Link] mindful:
•When interacting with others, our brain works at full speed
•In social situations it is important to be effective listeners and the points of
view of others must be understood, for this purpose a lots of connections are
made between different brain areas
•Although this happens subconsciously, people should think about the
consequences of statements and actions
•Self disclosure is an important part of forming relationships with others
•Yet we should be careful not to reveal too much information too quickly and
always think about how someone else would respond to this information
•[Link] emotions:
•An inappropriate and explosive emotional outburst can create faster
negative impression than any other thing
•Emotions are an important tool for connecting with others, and expressing
emotions brings balance to the human brain, but emotions must be
regulated and moderated
•Negative emotions such as anger, irritations or even disgust must always
be carefully and strategically displayed
•For leaders in big organizations, for instance, it is crucial to maintain
emotional caution, but subtly let others know that they are pleased or
displeased
•[Link] etiquette rules:
•There is a set of social rules, also called norms, that tell people how
to behave in specific social situations
•To make and maintain a positive impression, it is important to
adhere to and respect these social norms
•Additionally it is important to show that we have good manners and
know how to behave in different and perhaps challenging situations
•Being polite is always a good strategy for impression management
as few people disapprove of politeness or have negative associations
with it
•[Link] self confident:
•Self confidence is difficult to adopt when you don’t have it, but there are social
moments that demand courage and decisiveness
•Ex: Take a situation in which you are obligated to converse with others
•Take the initiative without thinking and ask a good question or help someone
•Additionally, it is important to stand up for your principles or convictions
•It is particularly important to convince others of your visions when you have a
leadership position
•Most people will respect your loyalty to a certain conviction or ideas, also be
reasonable, when someone else shares an argument that disproves your own
conviction or work method adjust these
•[Link] positive:
•There is much to gain by looking at the importance and use of positive
thinking and positive affection when making impressions
•A smile, a compliment, a positive energy is always better than a
negative and charged atmosphere
•Optimistic leaders will be able to convince employees more easily and
ae more often seen as effective
•Effective self impression management is not always easy
•As with most social skills, this is also something that should be
practised regularly to fully develop ones self impression management