AGRICULCURE

Grade 12
 UNITE ONE
VEGETABLE CROPS

PRODUCTION AND
MANAGEMENT

 1.1.Importance
problems and prospect
of vegetable crops
production in Ethiopia

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:

ML
Discuss the following questions

1. What are vegetables?

2. What vegetable crops are produced in

your locality?

3. List some characteristics of vegetables.

4. Explain the major benefits of vegetable

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
ML
Vegetables are
Plants whose

fruit, seeds, roots,

tubers- formed from a stem or root. E.g Potatoes.

bulbs-comprised of a plant's stem and leaves e.g. onion

 stems, leaves, or flower parts are

used as food
07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
ML
They are diverse in their growth
cycles.
Some are annuals.

Others are biennials.

Still others are perennials.

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07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
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They constitute d/t types of plants
including
Viny

shrubby

tree in their growth habits.

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:

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They are usually harvested fresh -
when their moisture contents are
high.
This distinguishes them from field
grain crops which are often
harvested at mature stage.

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:

ML
They are seasonal, perishable and

bulky in relation to their volume.

require intensive management.

They are vulnerable to damage and

cannot be stored for a long time.

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:

ML
1.1.1 Importance

Explain the major benefits of

vegetable crops.
The most important vegetable crops

in Ethiopia include:
pepper, mustard/kaleየሰናፍጭ ዘሮች,

onion, tomato, potato, chili,

carrot, garlic andNOTE

GRADE 12 Agriculture cabbage.
PRE.
BY: ML
In Ethiopia major vegetables

produced for:
1. Domestic consumption

are:-
cabbages,

tomatoes and

 garlic.
07/01/2025
GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
ML
2.Economic activities.

Green beans and peas are produced for

export .
 Commercial private farms produce for

the market.
Over 6.7 million households make their

livelihood from vegetable production in

the country.
07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
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country earns hundreds of
millions of dollars every year
from export of vegetables.
 Vegetables are mainly
exported to Europe and
Djibouti and Somalia.

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Vegetables like tomato and chilli are

among the major vegetables exported.

This contributes to the national

economy

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:

ML
 3. shorter growth cycle of the crops.
 Small holder farmers choose to grow vegetables due to

the shorter growth cycle.

 Compared to cereals, vegetables have higher value and

potential to increase employment and household

income.

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4.higher productivity
Compared to cereals vegetables

Productivity is often higher

require special care after harvest.

 highly perishable and need to be

stored and transported carefully

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Public health advocacy on the role of

vegetables in human nutrition and health

has significantly raised public awareness
about the place of vegetables in health.

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Reason for an increasing demand for vegetables
1. An increased consumption of vegetables reduces
hidden hunger (i.e micronutrient deficiency) in children.
Micronutrient deficiency associated with the deficiency
of essential vitamins and minerals.

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2.Vegetables are rich sources foods
a. Minerals:
iron,
zinc, and
iodine.
 Examples spinach, tomato

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:

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b. Vitamins

vitamin A,

vitamin C (ascorbic acid),

thiamine,

niacin,

folic acid and beta carotene.

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:

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Beta carotene is responsible

for the normal functioning of

the visual process and the
structure of the eye.
Prolonged deficiency of Beta

carotene leads to blindness.

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C. proteins

Leguminous and leafy

vegetables are rich sources

of proteins.

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3.The increasing prices of animal products like
meat, milk and eggs.

4.Vegetables are also raw materials for local

processing industries to produce products like
tomato paste and different juice types.

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This encouraged investment in the
sector both by:
 national and
 international commercial producers.

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1.1.2 Potential and opportunities

Vegetable production has enormous

potential to contribute to the national

economy and the livelihood of the

farmers in the country.

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:

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Ethiopia has a following high potential for

vegetable production.
 favourable climate

diverse climate zones ranging from 126

m.b.sl to 4620 m.b.sl

abundant labour

vast land and water resources

suitable regions
07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
ML
vegetable production
yields per unit area, as
well as the amount of land
used for production of the
crops, is increasing.
This is because of:
07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
ML
✍️ an increase in public awareness

about health benefits of vegetables,

✍️small scale irrigation

✍️the government support for investors

✍️incentives in the form of tax

exemptions

✍️local demand for vegetables

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
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In addition, vegetable production and

management is intensive.

This creates a remarkable size of

employment opportunity.

The income per hectare obtained from

vegetable crops is higher than that obtained

from cereals like teff or maize is more

promising.
07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
ML
1.1.3 Constraints

Even though Ethiopia has a high

potential ,vegetable production and

consumption in the country is low

The major constraints are:

🙅 inadequate knowledge of improved

methods of production and marketing,

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
ML
🙅 low consumption of vegetables
🙅 high cost of production inputs
like fertilizers, improved seeds
and pesticides

🙅poor management of vegetables,

🙅small size of vegetable

processing facilities
07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
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🙅poor soil fertility

🙅pests

🙅drought,

🙅post harvest losses,

🙅high price of fuel for pumping water for

irrigation
07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
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1.2 Environmental factors influencing vegetable
production

There are two types of factors

influence vegetable production

Abiotic and

biotic factors
07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
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 A. Abiotic factors
climatic (temperature, light,

precipitation, etc.) and

soil( chemical, physical and

nutritional)
 topographic factors.

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:

ML
1.2.1 Temperature

Among the processes affected by

temperature are:

Photosynthesis,respiration,

transpiration

increase with increasing temperature up

to a certain point.
07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
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Shift from vegetative growth to
reproductive growth stage.
 The effect of temperature on

transition from vegetative to

reproductive growth stages depends
on the specific types of vegetable
crops grown.
Example flowing
07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
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Types of crops that grow
successfully in a given location and
their yield levels.
Crops that originate in temperate

regions have lower temperature

requirements.
Crops originating in tropical regions

require warmer temperatures.

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
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Soil temperature

Warmer soil temperature generally

increases the rates of:
seed germination,

root development and

absorption of nutrients and water

by the roots.
07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
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Chilling injury(exposure to cold
temperatures) reduce:
size, shape and

 quality of harvestable parts of vegetable

crops

Example
Tropical and sub-tropical vegetables may

be damaged at temperatures below 10 0C.

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
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vernalization

vegetable crops require exposure to low

temperature before moving from vegetative to

reproductive growth stages.

Example

The Biennials and some of the cool season

vegetables (e.g., onion, carrot, etc.) initiate

flower formation after extended exposure to

low temperature.
07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
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1.2.2 Water
Fresh vegetables contain a high level

of water – often b/n 80% and 90% of

their weight
,about 322 litres of water is required

for production of each kilogram of

vegetable dry matter

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:

ML
The following points demonstrate the

roles of water in crop production:

👉germination and growth of crops

👉To dissolve organic and inorganic

compounds absorbed by plants

👉required in the process of

photosynthesis
07/01/2025GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
ML
👉 important in cell division, enlargement and turgidity

👉 too little or too much water is harmful for plant

growth

👉water shortage during critical growth stages directly

affects yields

👉 lack of during early plant growth stages results in

the stunted growth and reduces yield.

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:

ML
In addition, temporary

shortage of water during

critical growth stages (e.g.,
flowering, seed setting or
germination) is damaging.

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:

ML
Excess moisture can erode

soils and cause flooding.

Floods can damage harvested

vegetable crops and causes

crop diseases and loss of yield.

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:

ML
For example:

excess moisture from rainfall or

irrigation can damage vegetable

seedlings.
It can also wash away plant nutrients

from the soils.

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:

ML
1.2.3 Light

Light is the key element in

photosynthesis.
Plants grown in full light develop

vigorously with high chlorophyll amount

and high photosynthetic activity
Some plants change their growth in

response to day length.

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
ML
Long-day plants flower when the night is

short (usually less than 12 hours).

Short day plants flower when the night is

long (usually more than 12 hours).

 Plants that are not affected by day length

are called day-neutral plant.

 These plants can flower under any light

period.
07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
ML
Table1.1. day length of some vegetable crops.

Short day Day neutral Long day

Sweet potato Cucumber Spinach

Tomato Onion

Pepper Cabbage

Eggplant Carrot

Artichoke Potato

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:

ML
1.2.4 Humidity

refers to the amount of water

vapour in the atmosphere.

High levels of atmospheric

humidity is often associated with

incidence of crop diseases and
pests.
07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
ML
Humidity affects plant growth and

development through its effect on

plant transpiration from leaves.
In humid atmosphere, the stomata

open and allow diffusion of carbon

dioxide, oxygen and water vapour.

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:

ML
This allows active photosynthesis

and nutrient absorption.

Very high humidity could cause

increased germination of certain

fungal species.
This damages the plants.

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:

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Excessive humidity could also close

stomata which would mean

overheating of plants as it limits
evaporative cooling.
 Low humidity is also harmful for the

plant.
It may result in increased transpiration

and this may attract some pest types.

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
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07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
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07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
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1.2.5 Altitude

Temperature and rainfall of an area are

determined by the altitude of the area in

relative to sea level.

With 100m increase in altitude, there is 0.6 0C

decrease in temperature.

This affects vegetable production.

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
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In Ethiopia, the highlands have high

rainfall and low temperature.

This is often suitable for vegetable

production.
The lowlands have lower rainfall,

but higher temperature and are less

suitable for vegetable production.

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1.2.6 Soil

Soil type, soil fertility and soil

structure contribute to the

growth and yield levels of crops.

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Soil types

determines whether or not it stores

sufficient water for plants to grow.

 determines if soil compaction or water

lodging may be a problem

Slow emergence and seedling growth in

compacted soils increases a time a

vegetable plant is vulnerable to disease,
insects and weeds.
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Soil texture

refers to the particle size the soil

contains.
The relevant particles are:
Sand has the biggest size of the three.

Silt is of medium size.

Clay is the smallest size particle.

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:

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Sandy soils

 have predominantly high level of

pore space.

This allows the availability of air

and free drainage.

 It does not store much water for

plants
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Clay dominated soils

 drain very slowly and can

cause excess water

accumulation.
causes shortage of air for

roots and soil organisms.

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
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1.2.7 Biotic factors

Biotic factors affecting crop

production include
insects

diseases( bacteria, fungi nematodes,

viruses)
weeds and animals.

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The presence of these

harmful organisms in the

environment limits crop
productivity.

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Vegetable crop selection should
consider the adaptability of the
crop to:
a given environment and

resistance to common diseases

& pests
07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
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1.3 Classification of vegetable crops

Brainstorming 1.4
Answer the following question independently
and share your answers with your classmates
 What types of vegetable crop do you know?

 List the criteria for classifying vegetable crops

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:

ML
Vegetables can be classified into

different groups.
Root vegetables:

These are vegetables whose roots are

consumed as food.
These include:

 carrot, garlic, radish, cassava, sweet

potato and beet.

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE
ML
PRE. BY:
Leafy Vegetables:
These are vegetables grown for

their leaves or stems.

Cabbage, Swiss chard, celery,

lettuce and asparagus

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Flower Vegetables:

The flowers of ‘flower

vegetables’ are consumed.

e.g:- Cauliflower and broccoli

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based on temperatures that
produce optimum yields,
Vegetables can be classified
into:

1. warm season and

2. cool season vegetable crops

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Warm season (tropical and sub-tropical)

vegetables

 adapted to temperatures ranging from 18 to

29oC.

 grow well only in warm areas.

 cannot tolerate frosts.

 sometimes called tender plants.

Example:

 Cucumber, eggplant, pepper, snap bean, sweet

potato,
07/01/2025 tomato and
GRADE water
12 BIOLOGY NOTEmelon
PRE. BY:
ML
Cool season (temperate) vegetables
 require cool season to flower & produce

seeds.
referred to as ‘hardy plants’, as they can

tolerate frost without injury regions.

They are often small.

They are shallow rooted.

 They respond more readily to nitrogen

fertilizer than do warm season crops.

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07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
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classified based on time they

need to complete their life

cycle (phenology)
Annuals:

 complete their life cycle in a single year.

 Most vegetable crops are annuals

 E.g. spinach, lettuce and beans.

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Biennials:
 require two growing seasons to complete

their life cycle

 first season- produce their vegetative

parts
 during second season- grow of

reproductive parts
Sensitive to temperature,

07/01/2025
E.g. carrot, cabbage
GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE and beet.
PRE. BY:
ML
Perennials:

 grow for more than two growing

seasons.
 stay in production as long as ten

years.
E.g. asparagus and artichoke.

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 Activity (Assignment)1.1.
Form a group of 3 to 5 students:

visit a nearby vegetable crops market and

list the vegetable crops available.

classify the vegetable crops into categories

based on the edible parts and growth cycle.

prepare a summary report and submit it to your

teacher

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:

ML
07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
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1.4.Types of vegetable
production systems
There are several types of

vegetable production
systems.

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1.4.1 Gathering of wild vegetables

This involves collection of edible parts

from wild vegetable crops.

Such crops include:

 shola, wild mango tree, leaves of

moringa(shiferaw) tree,
1.4.2 Vegetables grown mixed with
cereal crops

Ethiopian mustard grows mixed

with maize crop.

Taro and kale can grow mixed

with coffee plants

1.4.3 Home gardening
the practice of allocating land close to

the homestead for vegetable

production.
 source of income for the household

Example fruit, seed, leafy and root

vegetables are grown together.

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1.4.4 Commercial vegetable
production
mainly market-oriented production that

common around urban centres.

 intensively managed with generous use of

agricultural inputs such as:

 Fertilizers, pesticides,

irrigation and machinery

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
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 1.5 Principles of vegetable crops
management
1.5.1 Site selection and management for vegetable
crops
 This includes:

land use history, soil pollution issues, availability

and quality of water resources, etc.

consider possible effects of adjacent crop

production.
the topography of the area should be taken into

account.
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1.5.2 Sustainability

management

Ensuring the sustainability of

a farm can be assisted by

recording reliable information.

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The following should be accurately recorded:
 the level of yield,

 crop varieties grown,

 quantity and type of fertilizer applied,

quantity and type of pesticides applied,

irrigation applied and other inputs used,

soil analysis results,

agricultural techniques used

information about market, sales, market

demand, prices,
07/01/2025 etc. NOTE
GRADE 12 BIOLOGY PRE. BY:
ML
1.5.3 Planting material
When selecting the planting material to be

used, factors that should be carefully

considered include:
adaptation to local conditions,

 resistance to pests and diseases,

 whether it meets the consumer demand in

terms of product
07/01/2025
qualityPRE. BY:
GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE
ML
The selected crop variety

should be planted at suitable

time of the season.

The quality of tubers and bulbs

is usually checked before use.

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:

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1.5.4 Integrated crop
management
Crop rotation could be
practiced in annual vegetable
production to improve disease
and pest control.

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The crop rotation Effective or not could be
checked by recording information on:

Whether yield is stable or increasing

Whether pesticide use is decreasing or

stable

Stable or increasing organic matter

levels

Whether soil nutrient levels are stable

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
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Chopping and incorporating of crop

residues or organic fertilizer, like

compost, could be used to improve
the soil fertility and water storage
capacities of the soil.

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:

ML
During integrated crop management, a

balanced nutrient supply produces quality

vegetable crop with minimal nutrient
losses.
In planning fertilizer application consider:

nutrients coming from organic matter

decay.
crop area.

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 1.5.5 Water
Soil moisture conservation practices

should be implemented to increase

availability of water in dry areas.
The quality of irrigation water is

very important and should be

monitored closely.

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:

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Profitability of Vegetable crop
production
Marketing is one of the most

important factors that

determine the success of any
crop production including
vegetable.
07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE
ML
PRE. BY:
Marketing starts with the

decisions made by producers

including:
choosing the crop types and their

varieties to be produced and

deciding how the produces are

delivered to the consumers with

acceptable profits.
07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE
ML
PRE. BY:
Marketing does not begin after the

crops have been produced, rather it

need to be considered before the

production of vegetable crops.

Whatever the cropping system is

used, the economics of their

production should take care of.

07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
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In this regard,

 seeds, fertilizers, pesticides and

labor to perform different field

operations including
 cultivation, management, harvesting,

postharvest handling, marketing and etc.

should be taken in to account during the
production of a particular commodity.
07/01/2025 GRADE 12 BIOLOGY NOTE PRE. BY:
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Pricing of a particular

commodity should therefore

balance the establishment of
the market share of the
produce and earning of an
acceptable return.
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A vegetable crop profit analysis

(Indicative only)
Assume a farmer having 1 hectare of land

and produced tomato crop.

 He harvested about 45 quintal or 4500kg

in one cropping season.

• In most of the towns, a kilogram of

tomato is sold at 25 birr on average.

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This sums up a gross income of 112,500

Birr in one cropping season.

• Estimated one season farm expenses (i.e.,

the cost of seeds, fertilizer, chemical,

transportation, labor and other expenses) =
51,300 Birr
• Net profit per month: 112,500 - 51,300

Birr = 61,200 birr per one cropping season.


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 UNIT TWO

FRUIT CROPS
PRODUCTION AND
MANAGEMENT
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