METHODS OF PROOF

DISCRETE STRUCTURES 1
Lecture 4

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by Kenneth H. Rosen
 Introduction
► Methods of proof are important not
only because they are used to prove
mathematical theorems, but also for
their many applications to computer
science.

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 Introduction
► These applications include verifying
that computer programs are correct,
establishing that operating systems
are secure, making inferences in the
area of artificial intelligence, showing
that system specifications are
consistent, and so on.

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 Definition of Terms
►A theorem is a statement that can be
shown to be true. Theorems are sometimes
called propositions, facts, or results.
► A proof is a sequence of statements that
form an argument (to demonstrate that a
theorem is true).
► Axioms or postulates are the underlying
assumptions about mathematical
structures, the hypotheses of the theorem
to be proved, and previously proved
theorems.
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 Definition of Terms
► The rules of inference, which are the
means used to draw conclusions from other
assertions, tie together the steps of proof.
► Fallacies are forms of incorrect reasoning.
► A lemma (plural lemmas or lemmata) is a
simple theorem used in the proof of other
theorems. Complicated proofs are usually
easier to understand when they are proved
using a series of lemmas, where each
lemma is proved individually.
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 Rules of Inference
► Rules of inference for propositional
logic provide the justification of the
steps used to show that a conclusion
follows logically from a set of
hypotheses.
► The process of drawing a conclusion
from a sequence of propositions is
called deductive reasoning.

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 Rules of Inference
► Definition: An argument is a sequence of
propositions written p1
p2

pn
_____
q
► An argument form is called valid if whenever all
the hypotheses are true, the conclusion is also true.
► A formal proof of validity for a given argument is
defined to be a sequence of statements, each of
which is either a premise of that argument or
follows from preceding statements by an
elementary validDiscrete
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arguments, and such that the last
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Kenneth H. Rosen
 Rules of Inference
► Modus Ponens (M.P.)
► Modus Tollens (M.T.)
► Hypothetical Syllogism (H.S.)
► Disjunctive Syllogism (D.S.)
► Constructive Dilemma (C.D.)
► Destructive Dilemma (D.D.)
► Simplification (Simp.)
► Conjunction (Conj.)
► Addition (Add.)
► Resolution (Res.)
► Absorption (Abs.)
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 Modus Ponens
► M.P.
pq
p
_____
q
► Example: If it snows today, then we
will go skiing. It is snowing today.
Therefore, we will go skiing.

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 Modus Tollens
► M.T.
pq
q
_____
p
► Example: If you study hard, you will
pass the course. You failed the course.
Therefore, you did not study hard.

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 Hypothetical Syllogism
► H.S.
pq
qr
_____
p  r
► Example: If it rains today, then we will not
have a barbecue today. If we do not have a
barbecue today, then we will have a barbecue
tomorrow. Therefore, if it rains today, then we
will have a barbecue tomorrow.
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 Disjunctive Syllogism
► D.S.
pq
p
_____
q
► Example: You either pass the exam or
get kicked out. You failed the exam.
Therefore, you will get kicked out.

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 Constructive Dilemma
► C.D.
(p  q)  (r  s)
pr
_______________
qs
► Example: If I eat too much, then I will
get fat and if I exercise daily, then I
will get fit. Either I eat too much or
exercise daily. Therefore, either I will
get fat or get fit.
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 Destructive Dilemma
► D.D.
(p  q)  (r  s)
q  s
_______________
 p  r
► Example: If Mary arrived on time for the
meeting, then she took the plane and if John
arrived on time for the meeting, then he
received the note. Either Mary did not take
the plane or John did not receive the note.
Therefore, Mary or John was late for the
meeting.
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 Simplification
► Simp.
pq
_______________
p
► Example: Kangaroos live in Australia
and are marsupials. Therefore,
kangaroos are marsupials.

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 Conjunction
► Conj.
p
q
_______
pq
► Example: John is happy. Mary is sad.
Therefore, John is happy but Mary is
sad.

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 Addition
► Add.
p
________
pq
► Example: Alice is a mathematics
major. Therefore, Alice is either a
mathematics major or a computer
science major.

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 Resolution
► Res.
pq
~p  r
_________
qr
► Example: I pass the exam or I will get
kicked out. I fail the exam or go to
college. Therefore, I will either get
kicked out or go to college.
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 Absorption
► Abs.
pq
___________
 p (p  q)
► Example: If there’s smoke, there’s fire.
Therefore, if there’s smoke, then
there’s smoke and there’s fire.

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 Example
► Show that the hypotheses “It is not
sunny this afternoon and it is colder
than yesterday,” “We will go
swimming only if it is sunny,” “If we do
not go swimming, then we will take a
canoe trip,” and “If we take a canoe
trip, then we will be home by sunset”
lead to the conclusion “We will be
home by sunset.”
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► Let p: “It is sunny this afternoon.”
q: “It is colder than yesterday.”
r: “We will go swimming.”
s: “We will take a canoe trip.”
t: “We will be home by sunset.”

Step Reason
1. p  q Hypothesis
2. rp Hypothesis
3. r  s Hypothesis
4. st Hypothesis
5. p Simp. 1
6. r M.T. 2,5
7. s M.P. 3,6
__________
t M.P. 4,7
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 Exercise
► What rule of inference is used in each of these
arguments?
 Jerry is a mathematics major and a computer
science major. Therefore, Jerry is a mathematics
major.
 If it is rainy, then the pool will be closed. It is rainy.
Therefore, the pool is closed.
 If it snows today, the university will close. The
university is not closed today. Therefore, it did not
snow today.
 If I go swimming, then I will stay in the sun too long.
If I stay in the sun too long, then I will sunburn.
Therefore, if I go
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swimming, then I will sunburn.
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 Exercise
► Construct a formal proof of validity for
each of the following arguments:
 Randy works hard. If Randy works hard,
then he is a dull boy. If Randy is a dull
boy, then he will not get the job.
Therefore, Randy will not get the job.
 If either algebra is required or geometry is
required, then all students will study
mathematics. Algebra is required and
trigonometry is required. Therefore, all
students will study mathematics.
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 Exercise
► Construct a formal proof of validity for each of the following
arguments:
 Either Gonzales attended the meeting or Gonzales was not
invited to the meeting. If the directors wanted Gonzales at
the meeting, then Gonzales was invited to the meeting.
Gonzales did not attend the meeting. If the directors did
not want Gonzales at the meeting and Gonzales was not
invited to the meeting, then Gonzales is on his way out of
the company. Therefore, Gonzales is on his way out of the
company.
p: Gonzales attended the meeting.
q: Gonzales was invited to the meeting.
r: The directors wanted Gonzales at the meeting.
s: Gonzales is on his way out of the company.

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 Exercise
► Construct a formal proof of validity for
the following arguments:
1. If either Gertrude or Herbert wins, then
both Jane and Kenneth lose. Gertrude
wins. Therefore Jane loses.
2. If I eat spicy foods, then I have strange
dreams. I have strange dreams if there is
thunder while I sleep. I did not have
strange dreams. Therefore, I did not eat
spicy food and it did not thunder.
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 Exercise
► Construct a formal proof of validity for
the following arguments:
 If rain continues, then the river rises. If
rain continues and the river rises, then the
bridge will wash out. If continuation of the
rain would cause the bridge to wash out,
then a single road is not sufficient for the
town. Either a single road is sufficient for
the town or the traffic engineers have
made a mistake. Therefore, the traffic
engineers have made a mistake.
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 Rules of Replacement
Any of the following logically equivalent
expressions may replace each other
whenever they occur:
► De Morgan’s Theorem (De M.)
~(p  q)  (~p  ~q)
~(p  q)  (~p  ~q)
► Commutation (Com.)
(p  q)  (q  p)
(p  q)  (q  p)
► Association (Assoc.)
[p  (q  r)]  [(p  q)  r]
[p  (q  r)]  [(p  q)  r]
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 Rules of Replacement
► Distribution (Dist.)
[p  (q  r)]  [(p  q)  (p  r)]
[p  (q  r)]  [(p  q)  (p  r)]
► Double Negation (D.N.)
p  ~~p
► Transposition (Trans.)
(p  q)  (~q  ~p)
► Material Implication (M.I.)
(p  q)  (~p  q)
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 Rules of Replacement
► Material Equivalence (M.E.)
(p  q)  [(p  q)  (q  p)]
(p  q)  [(p  q)  (~p  ~q)]
► Exportation (Exp.)
[(p  q)  r  [p  (q  r)]
► Tautology (Taut.)
p  (p  p)
p  (p  p)
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 SW: 1/4
► 1. If either Gertrude or Herbert wins, then
both Jane and Kenneth lose. Gertrude
wins. Therefore Jane loses.

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  Either the Attorney General has imposed a strict censorship or if
Black mailed the letter then Davis received a warning. If our lines
of communication have not been broken down completely, then if
Davis received a warning then Emory was informed about the
matter. If the Attorney General has imposed a strict censorship,
then our lines of communication have been broken down
completely. Our lines of communication have not been broken
down completely. Therefore, if Black mailed the letter, then Emory
was informed about the matter.
 Let:
p: Attorney General has imposed a strict censorship.
q: Black mailed the letter.
r: Davis received a warning.
s: Our lines of communication have been broken down completely
t: Emory was informed about the matter.

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Rules of Inference for Quantified
Statements
► Universal instantiation (U.I.)
► Universal generalization (U.G.)
► Existential instantiation (E.I.)
► Existential generalization (E.G.)

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 Universal Instantiation
► used to conclude that P(c) is true,
where c is a particular member of the
universe of discourse, given the
premise x P(x).
► Example: “All women are wise.”
“Lisa is a woman.”
“Therefore, Lisa is wise.”

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 Universal Generalization
► states that x P(x) is true, given the premise
that P(c) is true for all elements c in the
universe of discourse.
► Universal generalization is used when we show
that x P(x) is true by taking an arbitrary
element c from the universe of discourse and
showing that P(c) is true. The element c that we
select must be an arbitrary, and not a specific,
element of the universe of discourse. Universal
generalization is used implicitly in many proofs
in mathematics and is seldom mentioned
explicitly.
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 Existential Instantiation
► allows us to conclude that there is an
element c in the universe of discourse
for which P(c) is true if we know that x
P(x) is true.
► We cannot select an arbitrary value of
c here, but rather it must be a c for
which P(c) is true. Usually we have no
knowledge of what c is, only that it
exists.
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 Existential Generalization
► used to conclude that x P(x) is true
when a particular element c with P(c)
true is known.
► That is, if we know one element c in
the universe of discourse for which
P(c) is true, then we know x P(x) is
true.

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 Table 1. Rules of Inference for
Quantified Statements
Rule of Inference Name
x P(x) Universal Instantiation
P(c)

P(c) for an arbitrary c Universal Generalization

x P(x)

x P(x)_______________ Existential Instantiation

 P(c) for some element
c
P(c) for some element c Existential
 x P(x) Generalization
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 Exercise
► Show that the premises “Everyone in
this class has taken a course in
computer science” and “Maria is a
student in this class” imply the
conclusion “Maria has taken a course
in computer science.”

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 Exercise
► Show that the premises “A student in
this class has not read the book,” and
“Everyone in this class passed the first
exam” imply the conclusion “Someone
who passed the first exam has not
read the book.”

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 Direct Proof
► The implication pq can be proved by
showing that if p is true, then q must
also be true.
► This shows that the combination p true
and q false never occurs.
► A direct proof assumes that p is true
and then, using p as well as other
axioms, definitions, and previously
derived theorems, shows directly that q
is true.
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 Example
► Definition:The integer n is even if
there exists an integer k such that
n=2k and it is odd if there exists an
integer k such that n=2k+1. (Note
that an integer is either even or odd.)
► Give the direct proof of the theorem “If
n is an odd integer, then n2 is an odd
integer.”

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► Solution: Assume that the hypothesis
of this implication is true, namely,
suppose that n is odd. Then n=2k+1,
where k is an integer. It follows that
n2=(2k + 1)2
=4k2 + 4k + 1
=2(2k2 + 2k) + 1
Therefore, n2 is an odd integer (it is
one more than twice an integer).

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 Indirect Proof
► Since the implication pq is equivalent
to its contrapositive, q  p, the
implication pq can be proved by
showing that its contrapositive, q 
p, is true.
► This related implication is usually
proved directly, but any proof
technique can be used. An argument of
this type is called an indirect proof.
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 Example
► Give an indirect proof of the theorem “If
3n+2 is odd, then n is odd.”
► Solution: Assume that the conclusion of this
implication is false; namely, assume that n
is even. Then n=2k for some integer k. It
follows that
3n+2 = 3(2k)+2
= 6k+2
= 2(3k+1)
so 3n+2 is even (since it is a multiple of 2)
and therefore not odd.
Because the negation of the conclusion of
the implication implies that the hypothesis is
false, the original implication is true.
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 Proof by Contradiction
►A proof of contradiction establishes
that the proposition pq by assuming
that the hypothesis p is true and that
the conclusion q is false and then,
using p and q as well as other
axioms, definitions, and previously
derived theorems, derives a
contradiction.

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 Example
► Give a proof by contradiction of the theorem
“If 3n+2 is odd, then n is odd.”
► Solution: We assume that 3n+2 is odd and
that n is not odd, so that n is even. Then
n=2k for some integer k. It follows that
3n+2 = 3(2k)+2
= 6k+2
= 2(3k+1)
This contradicts the assumption that 3n+2 is
odd, completing the proof.
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 Example
► Prove, by contradiction, the following
statement:
For all real numbers x and y,
if x+y  2, then either x  1 and y  1.
► Proof: Suppose that the conclusion is false.
Then, x < 1 and y < 1. (Remember that
negating and or results in an and.). From the
properties of inequality in Algebra, we may
add these inequalities to obtain
x+y<2
At this point, we have derived the
contradiction pp, where p: x + y  2.
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 Exercise
► Prove that the square of an even
number is an even number using either
 a direct proof
 an indirect proof
 a proof by contradiction
► Prove that the sum of two rational
numbers is rational. (Definition: A real
number r is rational if there exists
integers p and q with q0 such that r =
p/q. A real number that is not rational is
called irrational.)
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