BITUMINOUS
MATERIALS
Chapter 5
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
• Bituminous materials are used widely all over the world in highway construction.
• These hydrocarbons are found in natural deposits or are obtained as a product of
the distillation of crude petroleum. The bituminous materials used in highway
construction are either asphalts or tars.
• They are usually fairly hard at normal temperatures. When heated, they
soften and flow. When mixed with aggregates in their fluid state, and then
allowed to cool, they solidify and bind the aggregates together, forming a
pavement surface. They are used on all types of roadway – from multiple
layers of asphalt concrete on the highest class of highways to thin, dust-
control layers on seldom-used roads.
Types of Bituminous Materials
• Based on their sources, there are two main categories of
bitumen, namely, those which occur naturally and those
which are by-products of the fractional distillation of
petroleum at refinery.
Natural Bitumens
Native Asphalts
These are obtained from asphalt lakes in Trinidad and other
Caribbean areas.
These were used in some of the earliest pavements in North America after
softening with petroleum fluxes.
Rock Asphalts
• These are rock deposits containing bituminous materials, which have been
used for road surfaces in localities where they occur.
Trinidad Lake Asphalt
Petroleum Asphalts
• These are products of the distillation of crude oil.
• Petroleum crudes are complex mixtures of hydrocarbons differing in
molecular weight and consequently in boiling range.
• Not all petroleum crudes contain a sufficient quantity of bitumen to
enable straight reduction to specification road bitumen.
• Petroleum crudes containing a sufficient quantity of bitumen are called
asphaltic-base crudes.
• Crudes which contain high proportions of simpler paraffinic
compounds, with little or no bituminous bodies present, are known as
paraffinic - base crudes.
• Petroleum crudes exhibiting characteristics of both the previous
categories are known as mixed-base crudes.
A. Penetration Grade Bitumens
These are the primary asphalt by products by the distillation of crude
oil.
They have consistency from semisolid to semi liquid at room
temperature.
They are graded according to their viscosity and penetration.
Penetration is the depth in 0.1 mm that a specified needle is able to
penetrate the samples when standard penetration tests are carried out.
They are produced in various viscosity graded, the most common being
AC 2.5, AC 5, AC 10, AC 20, and AC 40 with corresponding penetration
grades of 200-300, 120-150, 85-100, 60-70 and 40-50.
The viscosity grades indicate the viscosity in hundreds of poises 20%
measured at 60oC.
B. Cutback asphalts (Liquid
asphalts)
• These are asphalt cements mixed with a solvent to reduce their
viscosity and, thus, make them easier to use at ordinary temperatures.
• They are commonly heated (if required) and then sprayed on
aggregates.
• Upon evaporation of the solvent, they cure or harden and cement the
aggregate particles together.
• They are grouped into three types based on the type of solvent, which
governs the rates of evaporation and curing, namely, slow curing (SC),
medium curing (MC), and rapid-curing (RC).
B. Cutback Asphalts
• 1. Rapid-Curing (RC)-produced by adding a light diluent
of high volatility (generally gasoline or naphtha) to asphalt
cement. These are used primarily for tack coat and surface
treatments.
• 2. Medium-Curing (MC)-produced by adding a medium
diluent of intermediate volatility (generally kerosene) to
asphalt cement. These are generally used for prime coat,
stockpile patching mixtures, and road-mixing operations.
• 3. Slow-Curing (SC)-produced by adding oils of low
volatility (generally diesel or other gas oils) to asphalt
cement. They are also called road oils. They are generally
used for prime coat, stockpile patching mixtures, and as dust
palliatives.
C. Asphalt emulsion
o They are mixtures of asphalt cement, emulsifier and water.
o As the mixtures do not mix themselves, an emulsifying agent must be added.
o They contain 55-75% asphalt cement and up to 3% emulsifying agent, with the balance being
water.
o Two general types of emulsified asphalts are produced: Cationic emulsions, in which the
asphalt particles have a positive charge; and anionic, in which they have a negative charge.
o Anionic emulsions adhere better to aggregate particles, which have positive charges.
o Cationic emulsions work better with wet aggregates and in colder weather.
o They can be applied to a damp surface.
Physical Tests on bitumen
The most common physical testing of asphalt cements
are:
• 1. Consistency tests;
• 2. Durability tests;
Consistency Tests
• Consistency describes the degree of fluidity of asphalt cement at any
particular temperature. Since asphalt cement is a thermoplastic material,
its consistency varies with the temperature. The consistency of
asphalt materials is important in pavement construction because the
consistency at a specified temperature will indicate the grade of the
material.
• Therefore, it is necessary to measure the consistency of different asphalt
cements at the same temperature and shear loading conditions if
comparisons are to be made. The following consistency tests are
performed on asphalt cements:
• Absolute Viscosity
1. Viscosity test
at 140°F (60°C). Viscosity can simply
be defined as resistance to flow of a fluid. Viscosity grading of
asphalt cements is based on viscosity measurement at 140°F
(60°C). This temperature was selected because it
approximates the maximum HMA pavement surface tempera
ture during hot summer.
• Kinematic Viscosity at 275°F (135°C). ASTM D2170 is
used to measure the kinematic viscosity at (135°C) using a
Zeitfuchs Cross-Arm viscometer. This temperature was
selected because it approximates the mixing and laydown
temperatures used in the construction of HMA pavements.
• The Cannon-Manning vacuum viscometer is used to
measure absolute viscosity.
• Zeitfuchs Cross-Arm viscometer is used to measure
Cannon Manning Vacuum Zeitfuchs Cross-Arm
viscometer viscometer
2. Penetration
• The penetration test is an empirical test used to measure the consistency
of asphalt cement. Usually penetration is measured at 25°C which also
approximates average service temperature of the HMA pavements.
• The standard penetration test is shown in Figure 2-14. A container of bitumen
brought to the standard test temperature 25°C in a thermostatically-controlled
water bath. The sample is placed under a needle of prescribed dimensions.
The needle is loaded with a 100 g weight and is allowed to penetrate the
asphalt cement sample for 5 seconds. The depth of penetration is measured
in units of 0 .1 mm and is reported a: penetration units. For example, if the
needle penetrates 8 mm, the penetration of asphalt cement is 80.
Penetration Test
4. Ductility Test
• Many asphalt paving technologists consider ductility as an important property of
bitumen. The ductility test, run in accordance with ASTM D 113, measures the
distance in centimeters that a standard briquette of asphalt cement will stretch
before breaking (Figure 2.16). The cross section of the briquette at its smaller
dimension is one square centimeter. The test sample is brought to temperature in
a water bath which is maintained at the standard temperature of (25°C). The
two ends of the sample are separated at the rate of 5 cm/minute until rupture.
• According to (hot mix asphalt materials mixture design and construction) Asphalts
with lower ductility are said to have poorer performance, given having the same
penetration.
Durability Tests
• Asphalt cements undergo substantial short-term aging
(hardening) when they are mixed with hot mineral
aggregates in a HMA mixing facility. Their long-term aging
continues during the life of HMA pavements which are
subjected to environmental factors.
• Thin film oven test is the commonly used durability test.
Thin Film Oven Test
• The thin film oven (TFO) test is conducted by placing a 50 g sample of
asphalt cement in a cylindrical flat-bottom pan (140 mm inside diameter and
9.5 mm deep). The asphalt cement layer in the pan is about (3 mm) deep.
The pan containing the asphalt cement sample is transferred to a shelf in a
ventilated oven maintained at 163°C (Figure 2-17). The shelf rotates at 5 to 6
revolutions per minute. The sample is kept in the oven for 5 hours, and then
transferred to a suitable container for measuring penetration or viscosity of
the aged asphalt cement. The test method is described in ASTM D 1754.
• The aged asphalt cement is usually required to meet specified minimum
percentage retained penetration or maximum viscosity.
Thin film oven test
BITUMEN GRADING SYSTEMS
• The most common grading systems of bitumen are
• 1. Penetration grading
• 2. viscosity grading
Penetration Grading
• The following table gives the requirements for penetration graded
asphalt cements as found in ASTM D946. Five penetration grades are
specified: 40-50, 60-70, 85-100, 120-150, and 200-300. As mentioned
earlier, one penetration unit equals one tenth of a millimeter (0.1 mm).
The lower the penetration, the "harder" the asphalt. The "softest"
grade is 200-300, which is used in cold climate areas such as Canada.
Two grades, 60-70 and 85-100, are most commonly used for paving in
the U.S. Other requirements, such as ductility at 25°C and retained
penetration after thin film oven (TFO) test, are also listed in Table 2-6.
Viscosity Grading
• The poise is the standard unit of measurement for viscosity.
The lower the number of poises, the less viscous the asphalt
cement. AC-2.5 (asphalt cement with a viscosity of 250 poises
at 60°C) is "softer" than AC-40 (asphalt cement with a
viscosity of 4000 poises at the same temperature). AC-20
grade is most commonly used for paving in the United States.
Other test requirements such as penetration at (25°C),
viscosity at (135°C), viscosity at (60°C) and ductility at (25°C)
of the residue from thin film oven test (TFOT), and flash point
are also given in the specifications.
BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS
MIX DESIGN
• The Marshall mix design method consists of 6 basic
steps:
• Aggregate selection.
• Asphalt binder selection.
• Sample preparation (including compaction).
• Stability determination.
• Density and voids calculations.
• Optimum asphalt binder content selection
BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS
MIX DESIGN
• Aggregate Selection
• Determine aggregate physical properties.
• This consists of running various tests to determine
properties such as:
• Toughness and abrasion
• Durability and soundness
• Cleanliness and deleterious materials
• Particle shape and surface texture
• Gradation and size
• Specific gravity and absorption
• Perform blending calculations to achieve the
mix design aggregate gradation.
BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS
MIX DESIGN
• Asphalt Binder Evaluation
• The Marshall test does not have a common generic
asphalt binder selection and evaluation procedure.
• Each specifying entity uses their own method with
modifications to determine the appropriate binder
and, if any, modifiers.
• Binder evaluation can be based on local
experience, previous performance or a set
procedure.
• Once the binder is selected, several preliminary
tests are run to determine the asphalt binder's
temperature-viscosity relationship.
BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS
MIX DESIGN
• Sample Preparation
• The Marshall method, like other mix design methods, uses
several trial aggregate-asphalt binder blends (typically 5
blends with 3 samples each for a total of 15 specimens),
each with a different asphalt binder content.
• Then, by evaluating each trial blend's performance, an
optimum asphalt binder content can be selected.
• In order for this concept to work, the trial blends must
contain a range of asphalt contents both above and below
the optimum asphalt content.
• Therefore, the first step in sample preparation is to estimate
an optimum asphalt content.
• Trial blend asphalt contents are then determined from this
estimate.
BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS
MIX DESIGN
• Optimum Asphalt Binder Content Estimate
• The Marshall mix design method can use any
suitable method for estimating optimum asphalt
content and usually relies on local procedures or
experience.
• Sample Asphalt Binder Contents
• Based on the results of the optimum asphalt binder
content estimate, samples are typically prepared at
0.5 percent by weight of mix increments, with at
least two samples above the estimated asphalt
binder content and two below.
BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS
MIX DESIGN
• Compaction with the Marshall Hammer
• Each sample is then heated to the anticipated
compaction temperature and compacted with a
Marshall hammer, a device that applies pressure to a
sample through a tamper foot. Some hammers are
automatic and some are hand operated. Key
parameters of the compactor are:
• Sample size = 102 mm (4-inch) diameter cylinder 64
mm (2.5 inches) in height (corrections can be made
for different sample heights)
• Tamper foot = Flat and circular with a diameter of
98.4 mm (3.875 inches) corresponding to an area of
76 cm2 (11.8 in2).
BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS
MIX DESIGN
• Compaction with the Marshall
Hammer
• Number of blows = Typically
35, 50 or 75 on each side
depending upon anticipated
traffic loading.
BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS
MIX DESIGN
• The Marshall Stability and Flow Test
• The Marshall stability and flow test provides the performance
prediction measure for the Marshall mix design method.
• The stability portion of the test measures the maximum load
supported by the test specimen at a loading rate of 50.8
mm/minute (2 inches/minute).
• Basically, the load is increased until it reaches a maximum
then when the load just begins to decrease, the loading is
stopped and the maximum load is recorded.
• During the loading, an attached dial gauge measures the
specimen's plastic flow as a result of the loading (Figure 2).
• The flow value is recorded in 0.25 mm (0.01 inch) increments
at the same time the maximum load is recorded.
BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS
MIX DESIGN
• Figure 2. Marshall stability testing apparatus.
Marshal mix
sample
BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS
MIX DESIGN
• Density and Voids Analysis
• All mix design methods use density and voids to
determine basic HMA physical characteristics. Two
different measures of densities are typically taken:
• Bulk specific gravity (Gmb).
• Theoretical maximum specific gravity (TMD, Gmm).
• These densities are then used to calculate the volumetric
parameters of the HMA. Measured void expressions are usually:
• Air voids (Va), sometimes expressed as voids in the total mix
(VTM)
• Voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA)
• Voids filled with asphalt (VFA)
Volumetric Analysis
Volumetric analysis
BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS
MIX DESIGN
• Selection of Optimum Asphalt Binder Content
• The optimum asphalt binder content is finally
selected based on the combined results of Marshall
stability and flow, density analysis and void
analysis.
• Optimum asphalt binder content can be arrived at
in the following procedure:
• Plot the following graphs:
• Asphalt binder content vs. density. Density will generally
increase with increasing asphalt content, reach a
maximum, then decrease. Peak density usually occurs at
a higher asphalt binder content than peak stability.
BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS
MIX DESIGN
• Selection of Optimum Asphalt Binder Content
• Asphalt binder content vs. Marshall stability. This should
follow one of two trends:
• Stability increases with increasing asphalt binder content, reaches a
peak, then decreases.
• Stability decreases with increasing asphalt binder content and does not
show a peak. This curve is common for some recycled HMA mixtures.
• Asphalt binder content vs. flow.
• Asphalt binder content vs. air voids. Percent air voids
should decrease with increasing asphalt binder content.
• Asphalt binder content vs. VMA. Percent VMA should
decrease with increasing asphalt binder content, reach a
minimum, then increase.
BITUMEN BOUND MATERIALS
MIX DESIGN
• Selection of Optimum Asphalt Binder Content
• 1. Determine the asphalt binder content
• At maximum stability
• Asphalt content at maximum density
• Asphalt content at mid point of specified air void range (4 percent)
• 2. Average the three asphalt contents selected above
• 3. For the average asphalt content, go to the plotted curves and
determine the following properties
• Stability
• Flow;
• Air voids;
• VMA
• 4. Compare values from step 3 with criteria for acceptability in Asphalt
institute criteria table;
• If it matches This is the optimum asphalt binder content.
Typical Marshall
Design Criteria
• The Marshall Stability and Flow Test Criteria(from Asphalt
Institute, 1979)
Example
• A pavement surfacing made of asphalt concrete mix has the
following results from a Marshal Trial mix with maximum aggregate
size 12.5 mm being evaluated for an expected ESAL of 1*104 (light
traffic).
• Plot the following asphalt concrete mix results versus bitumen
content and suggest the optimum bitumen content to meet
Asphalt Institute’s requirement, what changes in the proportions of
each ingredients would you recommend if the optimum bitumen
content failed to satisfy the requirements.
Continue…….
