Know thyself.

-Socrates
Philosophy employs the inquisitive mind to discover the ultimate causes, reasons and
principles of everything. It goes beyond the scientific investigation by exploring all areas
of knowledge such as religion, psychology, politics, physics, and even medicine. Hence,
the etymological definition of philosophy “love of wisdom could pertain to the desire for
truth by formulating never ending questions to provide answers to every inquiry about
the nature human existence. The nature of the self is a topic of interest among
philosophers.
The philosophical framework for understanding the self was first introduced by the
ancient Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato, and $ristotle. In particular, Socrates: “Know
thyself. But what exactly does “know thyself mean( ) hat is self and the qualities that
define it( This chapter presents an overview of the philosophical perspective of the self
to assist students identify one*s self+++to gain knowledge. It intends to give a wider
perspective in understanding the self. The different views of prominent philosophers
regarding the nature of the self are discussed and while there are disagreements in how
philosophers view of the self, most of them agree that self+knowledge is a prerequisite
to a happy and meaningful life.

SOCRATES:
AN UNEXAMINED LIFE IS NOT WORTH LIVING
For Socrates the self is synonymous with the soul. He believes that every human
possess an immortal soul that survives the physical body. Socrates was the first to
focus on the full power of reason on the human self: who we are, who should be, and
who we will become. Socrates suggests that reality consists of two dichotomous realms:
physical and ideal realms. The physical realm is unchangeable, transient and imperfect.
The ideal realm is unchanging, eternal, and immortal. The physical world in which man
lives belongs to the physical realm. - n the other hand, the unchanging, eternal, perfect
realm includes the intellectual essences of the universe, concepts such as truth,
goodness, and beauty. The soul belongs to the ideal realm.

Socrates explains that the essence of the self+the soul+is the immortal entity. The
soul strives for wisdom and perfection, and reason is the soul*s tool to achieve this
exalted state. But then as long as the soul is tied to the body, the quest for wisdom is
inhibited by the imperfection of the physical realm, where it wanders and is confused.
Socrates thus suggests that man must live an examined life and a life of purpose and
value. For him, an unexamined life is not worth living. The
individual person can have a meaningful and happy life only
if he becomes virtuous and knows the value of himself that can
be
achieved through incessant soul searching. He must begin at
the source of all knowledge and significance+++the self. The
Socratic
method, the so+called introspection, is a method of carefully examining one*s thoughts
and emoti ons—to gain self+knowledge.

PLATO: THE sELF Is AN IMMORTAL sOUL

$nother ancient Greek philosopher, Plato, elaborates on
S ocrates * concept of the soul. /ike Socrates, Plato believes that
the self is synonymous with the soul. His philosophy can be
explained a s a process of self+knowledge and purification of the
soul. Specifi cally, he introduces the idea of a three+part soul0self:
reason, physical appetite and spirit or passion. Reason is the
divine essence that enables us to think deeply, make wise
choices, and achieve a true understanding of eternal truths. The physical appetite
includes our basic biological needs such a s hunger, thirst, and sexual desire. The spirit
or passion includes the basic emotions such a s love, anger, ambition, aggressiveness,
and empathy. These three elements of our selves are in a dynamic relationship with one
another, someti mes in conflict. ) hen conflict occurs, Plato believes it is the
responsibility of 1 e a s o n to sort things out and exert control, restoring a harmonious
relationship among the three elements of our selves. Further, Plato believes that
genuine happiness can only be achieved by people who consistently make sure that
their 1 e a s o n is in control of their Spirits and $ppeti tes. This harmonious integration
under the control of 1 e a s o n is the essence of P lato*s concept of 2us tice. $ s such, if
man lives in accordance to his nature, then he is giving 2us tice to his existence.
Having described his vison of the s oul0s elf, Plato goes on to elaborate his ideas about
the soul. In his Theory of Forms, he introduces the concepts of the two worlds: the world
of forms 3non+physical ideas4 and the world of sense 3reality4. ) hile the world of forms
is real and permanent, the world of sense is temporary and only a replica of the ideal
world. Plato claims that the sensible world is dependent on the ideal world where the
concept of the soul belongs. Since the soul is regarded a s something permanent, man
should give more importance to it than the physical body which resides in the world of
sense.

ARIsTOTLE:
THE sOUL Is THE EssENCE OF THE sELF
$nother Greek philosopher, $ristotle, believes that the soul is merely a
set of defining features and does not consider the body and soul a s separate
entities. H e suggest that anything with life has a soul. $ristotle holds that the
soul is the essence of all living things. Thus, the soul is the essence of he
self. However, humans differ from other living things because of their capacity
for rational thinking. His discussion about the self centers on the kinds of soul
possessed by man. Thus, he introduces the three kinds of soul:
vegetative, sentient, and rational. The vegetative soul includes the
physical body that can grow. The sentient soul includes sensual desires,
feelings, and
emotions. Rational Soul is what makes man human. It includes the intellect that allows
man to know and understand things. Thus, $ristotle suggests that the rational nature of
the self is to lead a good, flourishing, and fulfilling life 3self+actuali5ation4. The pursuit of
happiness is a search for a good life that includes doing virtuous acti ons. In saying this,
he posits that part of the rational soul is characteri5ed by moral virtues such a s 2us tice
and courage.

ST. AUGUSTINE: THE SELF HAS AN IMMORTAL SOUL

The $frican philosopher, $ugusti ne, is regarded a s a saint 3i.e.,S t. $ugusti ne of
Hippo4 in the Catholic Church. H e integrates the ideas of Plato and teachings of
Christianity. $ugusti ne believes that the physical body is radically different from and
inferior to its inhabitant, the immortal soul. $ s his thinking
matures, he developed a more unified perspecti ve o the
body and soul. H e ultimately came to view the body a s
“spouse of the soul, both att ached to one another by a
“natural appetite. H e believes that the body is united with the
soul, so that man may be entire and complete. 7evertheless,
a s a religious philos opher he contemplates on the nature of
,

man with emphasis on the soul a s an important element of

man. He believes that the soul is what governs and defi nes
man.
In his work, Confessions , $ugusti ne describes that humankind is created in the
image and likeness of God. 8verything created by God who is all good is good.
Therefore, the human person, being creation of God is always geared
towards the good. $ugusti ne is convinced that the self is known only through
knowing God.
$ugusti ne espouses the signifi cance of reflection, a s well a s the importance of prayers
and confessions to arrive at a 2us tification for the existence of God. For him, knowledge
can only come by seeing the truth that dwells within us. The truth of which $ugusti ne
speaks refers to the truth of knowing God. God is transcendent and the self seeks to be
united with God through faith and reason. In his mission to discover the truth on the
existence of God, $ugusti ne develops the fundamental concept of the human person,
and thus provides the philosophical principle, “I am doubting, therefore I am.

RENE DẺSCARTES: I THINK THEREFORE I AM

French philosopher 1 e n e 9escartes is the father of modern
philosophy. H e has brought an entirely new perspecti ve to philosophy
and the self. H e wants to penetrate the nature of reasoning process
and understand its relationship to the human self. The /ati n phrase
Cogito ergo sum – “I think therefore I am is the keystone pf
9 es cartes * concept of self. For him, the act of thinking about the self++
+ of being self+++conscious—is in itself proof that there is a self. H e is
confident that no rational person will doubt his or her own existence as
a conscious, thinking entity+++while we are aware of thinking about
our selves. For
9escartes, this is the essence of the human self+++a thinking entity that doubts,
understands, analy5es, questi ons, and reasons.
H e contends further that if man reflects thoughtfully, he will reali5e that there are two
dimensions of the human self: the self a s a thinking entity and the self a s a physical
body. In particular, he introduces the idea of the thinking self 3or soul4 a s non+material,
immortal, conscious being, and independent of the physical laws of the universe. In
contrast, the physical body is a material, mortal, non+thinking entity, fully governed by
the physical laws of nature. In other words, the soul and the body are independent of
one another, and each can exist and function without the other. The essenti al self—the
self a s a thinking entity+++is distinct from the self a s a physical body. Simply put, the
thinking self can exist independently of the physical body.

*OHN LOCKE: THE SELF IS CONSCIOUSNESS

For 8nglish philosopher John /ocke, the human mind at birth is
tabula rasa or a blank state. H e feels that the self, or personal identity, is
constructed primarily from sense experiences+++or more specifically, what
people see, hear, smell, taste, and feel. These experiences shape and
mold the self throughout a pers on*s life. For /ocke, conscious awareness
and memory of previous experiences are the keys to understanding the
self. /ocke believes that the essence of the self is its conscious
awareness of itself a s a thinking, reasoning, and reflecting identity. H e
contends that consciousness accompanies thinking and
makes possible the concept people have of self. S elf+cons cious nes s is
necessary to have a coherent personal 3self4 identity or knowledge of the self a s a
person.
Consciousness is what makes identity of a person similar different situations.
$t this point, /ocke is proposing that people could use the power of reason to gain
knowledge and consequently use this knowledge to understand experiences.
Knowledge is based on careful observation of experiences. 1 e a s o n plays an
important role in helping to figure out the signifi cance of sense experience and to reach
intelligent conclusions. Thus, using the power of reason and introspection enables one to
understand and achieve accurate conclusions about the self 3or personal identity4.

DAVID HUME: THERE IS NO SELF

Scotti sh philosopher 9avid Hume suggests that if people carefully
examines their sense experience through the process of introspection,
they will discover that there is no self. $ccording to Hume, what
people experience is 2us t a bundle or collection of different
perceptions. Hume maintains that if people carefully examine the
contents of their experience, they will find that there are only distinct
entities: impressions and ideas. Impressions are the basic sensati ons
of people*s experience such a s hate, love, 2oy, grief, pain, cold, and
heat. Impressions are vivid perceptions and are strong and lively.
Ideas, however, are
thoughts and images from impressions so they are less lively and vivid. Hume further
posits that different sensati ons are in a constant continuum that is invariable and not
constant. Hume argues that it cannot be from any of these impressions that the idea of
self is derived and consequently, there is no self. Hume*s skepti cal claim on this issue is
that people have no experience of a simple and individual impression that they can call
the self where the self is the totality of a pers on*s conscious life. Subsequently, the idea
of personal identity is a result of imagination.

IMMANUEL KANT: WE CONsTRUCT THE s E L F

For German philosopher Immanuel Kant, it is the self that makes experiencing an
intelligible world possible because it is the self that is actively organi5ing and
synthesi5ing all of our thoughts and perceptions. The self, in the form of consciousness,
utili5es conceptual categories which he calls transcendental deduction of categories, to
can be investigated scientifically. Kant believes that the
self is an organi5ing principle that makes a unified and
intelligible experience possible. It is metaphorically above
or behind sense experience, and it uses the categories of
our mind to filter, order, relate, organi5e and synthesi5e
sensati ons into a unified whole. In other words, the self
construct its own reality, actively creating a world that is
familiar, predictable, and most significantly, mine . The self
is the product of reason, a regulative principle, because
the self regulates experience by making unifies experiences possible. The self
transcends experience because the mind can grasp aspects of reality which are not
limited to the senses. Through rationality, people are able to understand certain abstract
ideas that have no corresponding physical ob2ect or sensory experience.

sIGMUND FREUD: THE s E L F Is MULTILAYERED

$ustrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud is not a philosopher, but his views on the
nature of the self have a far+reaching impact on
philosophical thinking, a s well a s other disciplines
such a s psychology and sociology. Freud holds that
the self consists of three layers: conscious,
unconscious, and preconscious. The conscious is
self
governed by the “reality principle. The conscious part
of the self is organi5ed in ways that are rational,
conscious selfappropriate
practical, and usually takes intoenvironment.
to the account the realistic
The demands of the situation, the
consequences of various acti ons, and the overriding need to preserve the equilibrium
3balance4 of the entire psychodynamic system of the self. In contrast, the unconscious
part of the self contains the basic instinctual drives including sexuality, aggressiveness,
and self+destruction; traumatic memories; unfulfilled wishes and childhood fantasies;
and thoughts and feelings that would be considered socially taboo. The unconscious
level is characteri5ed by the most primitive level of human motivation and human
functioning which is governed by the “pleasure principle. Freud argues that much of the
self is determined by the unconscious. - n the other hand, the preconscious self
contains material that is not threatening and is easily brought to mind. $ccording to
Freud, the preconscious part is located between the conscious and the unconscious
part of the self.
.

Three /ayers of the Self

GIL - ERT R+LE:

THE SEL F IS THE WA+ PEOPLE - EHAVE
British philosopher Gilbert 1yle believes that the self is best
understood as a pattern of behavior, the tendency or disposition of a
person to behave in a certain way in certain circumstances. 1 yle*s
concept of the human self thus provides the philosophical principle, “I
act therefore I am. 1yle considers the mind and the body to be
intrinsically linked in complex and intimate ways. In short, the self is
the same as bodily behavior. He concludes that the mind is the
totality of human dispositions that is known through the way people
behave. 7evertheless, 1yle is convinced that the mind expresses the
entire system of thoughts, emotions and actions that make up the
human self.

PAUL CHURCHLAND: THE S E L F IS THE - RAIN

 Canadian philosopher Paul Churchland advocates the idea
of eliminative materialism or the idea that the self is
inseparable from the brain and physiology of the body. $ll a
person has is the brain, and so of the brain is gone, there is
no self. For Churchland, the physical brain and not the
imaginary mind, gives people the sense of self. The mind
does not really exist because it cannot be experienced by the
senses.

MAURICE MERLEAU-PONT+:
THE SELF IS EM- ODIED SU- *ECTIVIT+
French philosopher <aurice < erleau+Ponty argues that all knowledge about the
self 3e.g.,understanding the nature of the self4 is based on the “phenomena of
experience. The “I is a single integrated core identity, a combination of the mental,
physical, and emotional structures around a core identity of the self. He further
articulates that when people examine the self at the fundamental level of direct human
experience, people will discover that the mind and body are unified, not separate. He
notes in his book, Phenomenology of Perception , that everything that people are aware
of is contained within the consciousness. Consciousness is a dynamic form responsible
for actively structuring conscious ideas and physical behavior. He is convinced that
consciousness, the world, and the human body are intricately intertwined in perceiving
the world