IC Engines:

Performance and
Efficiency
Criteria for performance comparison of cycles
Hello !
I am Dr Muhammad Alam Zaib
Khan
Assistant Professor, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, UET Peshawar
alamzaibkhan@[Link]
Engine Geometry
VC
1/ 2 TDC
𝑠(𝜃)=𝑎cos 𝜃+ ( 𝑙𝑟𝑜𝑑 −𝑎 sin 𝜃 )
2 2 2
B

L (stroke)
Cylinder volume when piston at TDC (s=l+a)
defined as the clearance volume Vc
BDC
The cylinder volume at any crank angle is:
2
𝜋𝐵
𝑉 (𝜃)=𝑉 𝑐 + (𝑙𝑟𝑜𝑑 +𝑎− 𝑠 (𝜃)) s lrod
4
Maximum displacement, or swept, volume:
2
𝜋𝐵
𝑉 𝑑= 𝐿 q
4 a
Compression ratio:
𝑉 𝐵𝐷 𝐶 𝑉 𝑐 +𝑉 𝑑
𝐶𝑅= =
𝑉 𝑇 𝐷𝐶 𝑉𝑐
Engine Geometry For most engines B ~ L (square engin
Mean and Instantaneous Piston Speeds
1 /2
𝑠=𝑎 cos 𝜃 + ( 𝑙 𝑟𝑜𝑑 − 𝑎 sin 𝜃 )
2 2 2 VC
TDC
B

Average and instantaneous piston speeds L (stroke)

are:

𝑆𝑝=2𝐿𝑁 BDC

Where N is the rotational speed of the crank s lrod

shaft in units revolutions per second

[ ]
𝑆𝑝 𝜋 cos 𝜃
= sin 𝜃 1+ 1 /2
𝑆𝑝 2 ( ( 𝑟𝑜𝑑 )
𝑙 /𝑎
2
− sin 2
𝜃 ) q
a
The peak ‘average piston speed’ for a typical
automotive engine is ~15 m/s. This is ultimately limited
by material strength (deceleration at end of exhaust
stroke). Therefore engines with large strokes will have a
lower maximum N (angular speed) compared to engines Engine Geometry For most engines B ~ L (square engin
with short strokes.
Brake Torque (Tb) and Brake Power (Pb)
If Torque is measured using a steady-state engine dynamometer.
Larm

Stator Force F

Rotor

N
Load cell

The brake torque measured by the dynamometer is:

Tb = F*Larm with units of [J]

The brake power Pb is calculated by knowing the engine speed N

and the measured brake torque :

Pb = *T = (2 N)*T w/units: (rad/rev)(rev/s)(J) = [Watt]

Note:  is the shaft angular velocity with units: rad/s

Indicated Work (subscript i is for ‘indicated’)

Given the cylinder pressure data over the operating cycle of the
engine one can calculate the work done by the gas on the piston.

The indicated work per cycle is:

𝑊 𝑖 =∮ 𝑝𝑑𝑉
WA > 0 This is the Net Work Out of
the engine part of the cycle
(always positive)

WB < 0 This is the Net Work In of

the
gas exchange part of the
cycle
(sometimes neg, sometimes
pos)

Compression Power Exhaust Intake

W<0 W>0 W<0 W>0
Indicated
Power
Pi = Wi N / nR w/units: (kJ/cycle) (rev/s) /
(rev/cycle)

where Pi – indicated power [kJ/sec, or kW]

Wi – indicated work, previous slide [kJ/cycle]
N – crankshaft speed [rev/s]
nR – number of crank [revolutions/cycle]
= 2 for 4-stroke
= 1 for 2-stroke

From this equation we can see that some ways to

increase power output of an engine are by increasing:
• engine displacement, Vd
• compression ratio, rc or CR
• engine speed, N
 1
%
(Prof. John
Heywood, MIT)
Modern gasoline IC engine
vehicle converts about
16% of the chemical
energy in gasoline to
useful work.

The average light-duty vehicle

weighs 4,100 lbs.
The average occupancy of a
light-duty vehicle is 1.6
persons.
If the average occupant
weighs 160 lbs,

0.16x((1.6x160)/4100) =
0.01
Mechanical Efficiency
Some of the power generated in the cylinder is used to overcome
engine friction. The friction power is used to describe these losses.
It relates the brake power (calculated from a torque measurement)
and indicated power (calculated from the integral of p*dV).

Pf = Pi - Pb

Alternatively, friction power can be measured by motoring the engine

and measuring the torque required to spin the engine (without
combustion)
The mechanical efficiency is defined as:
m = Pb / Pi = 1- (Pf / Pi )

Mechanical efficiency depends on throttle position, engine

design, and engine speed. Typical values for automobile
engines at WOT are:
• 90% @ cruise speed (~2000-2500 RPM)
• 75% @ max speed (~5500-6500 RPM)
Power and Torque vs. Engine Speed
Rated brake power There is a maximum in the brake power
versus engine speed called the rated
brake power.
1 kW = 1.341 hp

At higher speeds brake power decreases as

friction power becomes significant compared
to the indicated power

Max brake torque There is a maximum in the torque versus

speed called maximum brake torque (MBT).

Brake torque drops off:

• at lower speeds do to heat losses
• at higher speeds it becomes more difficult
to ingest a full charge of air.
Indicated Mean Effective Pressure
(imep)
• imep is a fictitious constant pressure that would produce the
same work per cycle if it acted on the piston during the power
stroke.

imep = Wi / Vd = (Pi nR) / (Vd N)

so Pi = imep Vd N / nR = imep Ap Up / (2 nR)

• imep does not depend on engine speed, just like torque.

• imep is a better parameter than torque to compare engines for

design and output because it is independent of engine speed,
N, and engine size, Vd.

Brake mean effective pressure (bmep) is defined as:

𝑊 𝑏 2 𝜋 ⋅ 𝑇 𝑏 ⋅𝑛 𝑅 𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 ⋅𝑉 𝑑
𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝= = → 𝑇 𝑏=
𝑉𝑑 𝑉𝑑 2 𝜋 ⋅𝑛 𝑅
Maximum BMEP
𝑊 𝑏 2 𝜋 ⋅ 𝑇 ⋅𝑛 𝑅
𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝= =
𝑉𝑑 𝑉𝑑
• The maximum bmep is obtained at WOT at a particular engine
speed
• Throttle positions less than WOT decreases the bmep
• For a given engine displacement (swept volume), a higher
maximum bmep means more torque
• A higher bmep would allow a smaller displacement engine to make
the same torque as a larger displacement engine
• Higher maximum bmep means higher stresses and temperatures in
the engine  usually shorter engine life, or bulkier components
• If a two-stroke had the same bmep as a four-stroke, the two-stroke
engine would produce twice the torque and power as the same
displacement four-stroke engine.
Specific Fuel Consumption

• For transportation vehicles fuel economy is generally given as

mpg, or liters/100 km.

• In engine testing the fuel consumption is measured in terms of

the fuel mass flow rate.

• The specific fuel consumption, sfc, is a measure of how

efficiently the fuel supplied to the engine is used to produce
power,

bsfc = mf / Pb isfc = mf / Pi (w/units: g/kW-hr)

• Clearly a low value for sfc is desirable since at a given power
level less fuel will be consumed
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption vs Size
• BSFC decreases with engine size due to reduced heat losses
from gas to cylinder wall.

• Note: cylinder surface to volume ratio increases with bore diameter.

𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 2𝜋 𝑟𝐿 1

= 2 ∝
𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝜋𝑟 𝐿 𝑟
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption vs Speed
• There is a minimum in the bsfc versus engine speed curve

• At high speeds the bsfc increases due to increased friction

• At lower speeds the bsfc increases due to increased time for heat
losses from the gas to the cylinder and piston wall

• Bsfc decreases with compression ratio due to higher thermal

efficiency
Performance Maps
Performance map is used to display the bsfc over the engines full load
and speed range. Using a dynamometer to measure the torque and fuel
mass flow rate you can calculate:

bmep = 2 T nR / Vd Pb = 2 N T

bsfc = mf / Pb
bmep@WOT

Constant bsfc contours from a

two-liter four cylinder SI engine
Combustion Efficiency
• The time for combustion in the cylinder is very short so not all
the fuel may be consumed, or local temperatures may not
support combustion

• A small fraction of the fuel may not react and exits with the
exhaust gas. The combustion efficiency is defined as actual
heat input (heat released) divided by theoretical heat input:

c = Qin/ (mf QHV)

Where Qin = heat added by combustion per cycle

mf = mass of fuel added to cylinder per cycle
QHV = heating value of the fuel (chemical energy per unit
mass)
Notes:
For a lean or stoichiometric mixture has a maximum value of 100%
For a rich mixture can never be higher than the value of lambda
i.e. if then
Cycle Thermal Efficiency

t = work per cycle / heat input per cycle

t = W / Qin = W / (c mf QHV)

or in terms of rates…

t = power out / rate of heat input

t = P/Qin = P/(c mf QHV)

• Thermal efficiencies can be given in terms of brake or indicated

values
• Indicated thermal efficiencies are typically 50% to 60%
• You can estimate Cycle Thermal Efficiency by the idealized cycles
(Otto and Dual Cycle)
Arbitrary Efficiency
(aka: fuel conversion
efficiency)
(aka: net thermal efficiency)
f = o = Wb / (mf QHV) = Pb / (mf
QHV)
Note:
In most cases the value of f is very similar to t. Since
mechanical and combustion efficiency are typically much
higher than cycle efficiency, we expect that f will always be
slightly lower than t.

Recall that

sfc = mf / Pb

Thus
f = o = 1 / (sfc QHV)
Volumetric Efficiency
• Due to the short cycle time and flow restrictions less than ideal
amount of air enters the cylinder.
• The effectiveness of an engine to induct air into the cylinders is
measured by the volumetric efficiency which is the ratio of actual
air inducted divided by the theoretical air inducted:

v = ma / (a Vbdc) = nR ma / (a Vbdc N)

Approximation: v = ma / (a Vd) = nR ma / (a Vd N)

where a is the density of air at atmospheric conditions Po, To for an

ideal gas a =Po / RaTo and Ra = 0.287 kJ/kg-K (at standard conditions
a = 1.181 kg/m3)

Typical peak values for WOT are in the range 75%-90%, and lower
when the throttle is closed
Air-Fuel Ratio
• For combustion to take place, the proper ratio of air and fuel
must be present in the cylinder.

• The air-fuel ratio is defined as

AF = ma / mf = ma / mf

• The ideal AF for gasoline is about 15:1, with homogenous

combustion possible in the range of 6 to 19.

• For a SI engine the AF is in the range of 12:1 to 15:1 depending

on the operating conditions.

• For a CI engine, where the mixture is highly non-homogeneous

and the AF is in the range of 18 to 70.
Factors influencing engine performance
• air-fuel ratio,
• compression ratio,
• ignition timing

Assignment:
Use Lotus Engine Simulation Software for a Single Cylinder Model
shows the BSFC (brake specific fuel consumption), BMEP (brake
mean effective pressure), Torque, and Power produced by the engine