Introductory Mathematical Analysis

Chapter 1
Review of Algebra

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra

Chapter Objectives
• To be familiar with sets, real numbers, real-number line.
• To relate properties of real numbers in terms of their
operations.
• To review the procedure of rationalizing the
denominator.
• To perform operations of algebraic expressions.
• To state basic rules for factoring.
• To rationalize the denominator of a fraction.
• To solve linear equations.
• To solve quadratic equations.
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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra

Chapter Outline
0.1) Sets of Real Numbers
0.2) Some Properties of Real Numbers
0.3) Exponents and Radicals
0.4)
Operations with Algebraic Expressions
0.5) Factoring
0.6) Fractions
0.7) Equations, in Particular Linear Equations
0.8) Quadratic Equations

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra

0.1 Sets of Real Numbers

• A set is a collection of objects.

• An object in a set is called an element of that
set.
• Different type of integers:
Set of positive integers 1, 2, 3, ...

Set of negative integers ...,  3,  2,  1

• The real-number line is shown as

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra

0.2 Some Properties of Real Numbers

• Important properties of real numbers

1. The Transitive Property of Equality
If a b and b c, then a c.

2. The Closure Properties of Addition and

Multiplication
For all real numbers, there are unique real numbers
a  b and ab.

3. The Commutative Properties of Addition

and Multiplication
a  b b  a and ab ba
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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.2 Some Properties of Real Numbers

4. The Commutative Properties of Addition

and Multiplication
a  b  c  a  b   c and abc  ab c

5. The Identity Properties

0  a a and 1a a

6. The Inverse Properties

a   a  0 a a  1 1

7. The Distributive Properties

ab  c  ab  ac and b  c a ba  ca

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.2 Some Properties of Real Numbers

Example 1 – Applying Properties of Real Numbers

Solution: a. x y  3z  2w  y  3z  2w x
b. 34 5  4 5 3

Example 3 – Applying Properties of Real

Numbers
ab b
a. Show that a  for c 0.
c c
Solution: ab ab 1 a b 1  a b 
c c  c c

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.2 Some Properties of Real Numbers
Example 3 – Applying Properties of Real Numbers

b. Show that a  b  a  b for c 0.

c c c
Solution: a  b a  b  1 a 1  b 1
c c c c
1 1 a b
a b  
c c c c
ab a b
 
c c c

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra

0.3 Exponents and Radicals

n exponent
base x
• Properties:
1. x n  x x x x
n factors

n 1 1
2. x  n  for x  0
x x x x x
n factors

1
3.  n  x n
x
4. x 0 1

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.3 Exponents and Radicals

Example 1 – Exponents
4
 1  1  1  1  1   1 
a.            
 2  2   2   2   2   16 
-5 1 1
b. 3  5 
3 243
1
c. -5 35 243
3
d. 20 1, π 0 1, (  5)0 1
e. x 1  x

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.3 Exponents and Radicals

• The symbol n x is called a radical.

n is the index, x is the radicand, and is the
radical sign.

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.3 Exponents and Radicals

Example 3 – Rationalizing Denominators

Solution:
1 1
2 2 2 5 2 5 2 2
2 5
a.  1  1 1  1 
5 5 2 5 2 5 2 5 5

b.
2

2
 1 5 
223 x  
5
1
6


26 3 5 x
6
3x 5 6 3  x 5 3 6 x 6
6 3x 3x

Example 5 – Exponents
a. Eliminate negative exponents in x  1  y  1 and
simplify.
Solution: 1 1 1 1 y x
x y   
x y xy
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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.3 Exponents and Radicals
Example 5 – Exponents

b. Simplify x 3 / 2  x 1/ 2 by using the distributive law.

Solution:
x 3 / 2  x 1/ 2  x 1/ 2 x  1

 7 x  .
2 2
c. Eliminate negative exponents in 7 x

Solution:
7 1 7 1
 7 x 
2 2
7x  2  2
x 7 x  x 49 x 2
2

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.3 Exponents and Radicals
Example 5 – Exponents

d. Eliminate negative exponents in x 1

 y 
1 2
.

Solution: 2 2
 1 1 y  x
x 1
 y 
1  2
    
x y  xy 
2
 xy  x 2y 2
  
y  x y  x 2
e. Apply the distributive law to
Solution:
x
2
5
y 1
2
6
 2x 5 . 

x
2
5
y 1
2
 2x
6
5
x 2
5
1
y  2x
2
8
5

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.3 Exponents and Radicals

Example 7 – Radicals

a. Simplify 3
x6y 4 .

Solution:
3
x 6 y 4 3 ( x 2 )3 3 y 3 3 y  x 2 y 3 y

2
b. Simplify 7
.

Solution:
2 2 7 14
 
7 7 7 7

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.3 Exponents and Radicals
Example 7 – Radicals

c. Simplify 250  50  15 2.
Solution:
250  50  15 2 5 10  5 2  15 2
5 10  10 2

d. If x is any real number, simplify x 2 .

Solution:
 x if x 0
2
x 
 x if x  0
Thus, 2 2
2
and  3 2
3.

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra

0.4 Operations with Algebraic Expressions

• If symbols are combined by any or all of the
operations, the resulting expression is called
an algebraic expression.
• A polynomial in x is an algebraic expression
of the form:
c n x n  c n  1x n  1    c1x  c0

where n = non-negative integer

cn = constants

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.4 Operations with Algebraic Expressions

Example 1 – Algebraic Expressions

3
a. 3 3 x  5x  2 is an algebraic expression in
the 10  x

variable x. 5
10  3 y 
7  y2
b. is an algebraic expression in the

x  y 3  2
xy
variable
y y.
c. is an algebraic expression in the

variables x and y.
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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.4 Operations with Algebraic Expressions

Example 3 – Subtracting Algebraic Expressions

Simplify 3 x 2 y  2 x  1 4 x 2 y  6 x  3 .
Solution:
3 x y  2x  1 4 x y  6 x  3
2 2

(3 x 2 y  2 x  1)  (  4 x 2 y  6 x  3)
3  4 x 2 y   2  6 x  1  3
 x 2 y  8 x  4

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.4 Operations with Algebraic Expressions

• A list of products may be obtained from the

distributive property:

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.4 Operations with Algebraic Expressions

Example 5 – Special Products

a. By Rule 2,
x  2x  5
 x 2  2  5 x  2 5 
 x 2  3 x  10
b. By Rule 3,
3z  57z  4
3 7z 2  3 4  5 7 z  5 4
21z 2  47 z  20

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.4 Operations with Algebraic Expressions
Example 5 – Special Products

c. By Rule 5, x  4 2
 x 2  24 x  4 2
 x 2  8 x  16

d. By Rule 6,  y  1  3 y
2 2
1  3 
 y  1  3
2
2 2

y 2  8

e. By Rule 7, 3 x  2
3

3 x   323 x   32 3 x   2

3 2 2 3

27 x 3  54 x 2  36 x  8
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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.4 Operations with Algebraic Expressions

Example 7 – Dividing a Multinomial by a Monomial

x 3  3x
a. x 2  3
x
4z 3  8z 2  3z  6 2 3 3
b. 2 z  4 z  
2z 2 z

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra

0.5 Factoring
• If two or more expressions are multiplied
together, the expressions are called the
factors of the product.

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.5 Factoring

Example 1 – Common Factors

2 2 3
a. Factor 3 k x  9 k x completely.
Solution:
3k 2 x 2  9k 3 x 3k 2 x x  3k 

5 2 3 2 3 4 4 2 2
b. Factor 8a x y  6a b yz  2a b xy z completely.
Solution:
8a 5 x 2 y 3  6a 2b 3 yz  2a 4 b 4 xy 2 z 2

2a 2 y 4a 3 x 2 y 2  3b 3 z  a 2b 4 xyz 2 

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.5 Factoring

Example 3 – Factoring
a. x 2  8 x  16 x  4 
4

b. 9 x 2  9 x  2 3 x  13 x  2
c. 6 y 3  3 y 2  18 y 3 y 2y  3 y  2
d. x 2  6 x  9 x  3 
2

e. z1/ 4  z 5 / 4 z1/ 4 1  z 
 
f. x 4  1  x 2  1 x  1x  1

g. x 2 / 3  5 x 1/ 3  4  x 1/ 3  1 x 1/ 3  4  
h. ax 2  ay 2  bx 2  by 2 x  y x  y a  b 
i. 8  x 3 2  x  4  2 x  x 2 
 
j. x 6  y 6  x 3  y 3 x 3  y 3 
x  y x 2
 
 xy  y 2 x  y  x 2  xy  y 2 
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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra

0.6 Fractions

Simplifying Fractions
• Allows us to multiply/divide the numerator and
denominator by the same nonzero quantity.
Multiplication and Division of Fractions
• The rule for multiplying and dividing is
 a   c  ac a c ad
     
 b   d  bd b d bc

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.6 Fractions

Rationalizing the Denominator

• For a denominator with square roots, it may be
rationalized by multiplying an expression that
makes the denominator a difference of two
squares.

Addition and Subtraction of Fractions

• If we add two fractions having the same
denominator, we get a fraction whose
denominator is the common denominator.

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.6 Fractions

Example 1 – Simplifying Fractions

x2  x  6
a. Simplify 2 .
x  7 x  12
Solution:
x2  x  6

x  3 x  2 x  2

x  7 x  12 x  3 x  4  x  4
2

2x 2  6 x  8
b. Simplify 8  4 x  4 x 2 .
Solution:
2 x 2  6 x  8 2x  1x  4  x 4
 
8  4x  4x 2
41  x 2  x  2x  2

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.6 Fractions

Example 3 – Dividing Fractions

x x 3 x x 5 x x  5 
a.    
x  2 x  5 x  2 x  3 x  2x  3 
x 5
x  3 x 5 1 x 5
b.   
2x x  3 2 x 2 x x  3 
4x
x 2
 1 4x x1 2
c.  2  2 
2 x  8 x x  1 2 x  8 x x  1x  4 
2

x1

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.6 Fractions

Example 5 – Adding and Subtracting Fractions

p2  5 3p  2 x 2  5x  4 x 2  2x
a.  b. 2  2
p 2 p 2 x  2x  3 x  5 x  6
p 2

 5  3 p  2 
x  1x  4 

x x  2
 x  1x  3 x  2x  3
p 2
p2  3p  3 4
 
p 2 x 3

x2  x  5 x2  2  4x  8
c.   2
x 7 x  7 x  9 x  14


  
x 2  x  5  x 2  2   4  
x 7
x 7
 1
x 7
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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.6 Fractions

Example 7 – Subtracting Fractions

x 2

x 2

x  22x  3 x  2x  3
x 2  6x  9 2 x 2  9  
2x  3  x  3 
2

2 x 2  10 x  12  x 2  5 x  6

2x  3  x  3 
2

x 2  15 x  6

2x  3  x  3 
2

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra

0.7 Equations, in Particular Linear Equations

Equations
• An equation is a statement that two
expressions are equal.
• The two expressions that make up an equation
are called its sides.
• They are separated by the equality sign, =.

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.7 Equations, in Particular Linear Equations

Example 1 – Examples of Equations

a. x  2 3
b. x 2  3 x  2 0
y
c. 6
y 4
d. w 7  z

• A variable (e.g. x, y) is a symbol that can be

replaced by any one of a set of different
numbers.

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.7 Equations, in Particular Linear Equations

Equivalent Equations
• Two equations are said to be equivalent if they
have exactly the same solutions.
• There are three operations that guarantee
equivalence:
1. Adding/subtracting the same polynomial
to/from both sides of an equation.
2. Multiplying/dividing both sides of an
equation by the same nonzero constant.
3. Replacing either side of an equation by an
equal expression.

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.7 Equations, in Particular Linear Equations

Operations That May Not Produce Equivalent

Equations
4. Multiplying both sides of an equation by an
expression involving the variable.
5. Dividing both sides of an equation by an
expression involving the variable.
6. Raising both sides of an equation to equal
powers.

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.7 Equations, in Particular Linear Equations

Linear Equations
• A linear equation in the variable x can be
written in the form
ax  b 0
where a and b are constants and a 0 .

• A linear equation is also called a first-degree

equation or an equation of degree one.

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.7 Equations, in Particular Linear Equations

Example 3 – Solving a Linear Equation

Solve 5 x  6 3 x.
Solution:
5 x  6 3 x
5 x  6   3 x  3 x   3 x 
2 x  6 0
2 x  6  6 0  6
2 x 6
2x 6

2 2
x 3

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.7 Equations, in Particular Linear Equations

Example 5 – Solving a Linear Equations

7x  3 9x  8
Solve  6 .
2 4
Solution:
 7x  3 9x  8 
4   46 
 2 4 
27 x  3   9 x  8  24
5 x  14 24
5 x 10
x 2

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.7 Equations, in Particular Linear Equations

Literal Equations
• Equations where constants are not specified,
but are represented as a, b, c, d, etc. are
called literal equations.
• The letters are called literal constants.

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.7 Equations, in Particular Linear Equations

Example 7 – Solving a Literal Equation

Solve a  c x  x x  a  for x. 2 2

Solution:
a  c x  x 2
x  a 
2

ax  cx  x 2  x 2  2ax  a 2
x c  a  a 2
a2
x
c a

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.7 Equations, in Particular Linear Equations

Fractional Equations
• A fractional equation is an equation in which
an unknown is in a denominator.

Example 9 – Solving a Fractional Equation

5 6
Solve x  4  x  3 .
Solution:
5   6 
x  4x  3  
 x 4 x 3  
 x  4  x  3
5x  3  6x  4 
9 x
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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.7 Equations, in Particular Linear Equations

Example 11 – Literal Equation

u
If s express u in terms of the remaining
au  v
,
letters; that is, solve for u.
Solution:
u
s
au  v
s au  v  u
sau  sv u
u sa  1  sv
sv
u
1  sa

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.7 Equations, in Particular Linear Equations

Radical Equations
• A radical equation is one in which an unknown
occurs in a radicand.

Example 13 – Solving a Radical Equation

Solve y  3  y  3.
Solution:
y 3 y  3
y  3 y  6 y  9
6 y 12
y 2
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y 4
Chapter 0: Review of Algebra

0.8 Quadratic Equations

• A quadratic equation in the variable x is an

equation that can be written in the form
ax 2  bx  c 0

where a, b, and c are constants and a 0.

• A quadratic equation is also called a second-

degree equation or an equation of degree two.

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Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.8 Quadratic Equations

Example 1 – Solving a Quadratic Equation by Factoring

a. Solve x 2  x  12 0.
Solution:
Factor the left side factor: x  3 x  4  0
Whenever the product of two or more quantities
is zero, at least one of the quantities must be
zero.
x  3 0 or x  4 0
x 3 x  4

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.8 Quadratic Equations
Example 1 – Solving a Quadratic Equation by Factoring

2
b. Solve 6w 5w .

Solution: 6w 2 5w
w 6w  5  0
5
w 0 or w
6

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.8 Quadratic Equations

Example 3 – Solving a Higher-Degree Equation by

Factoring
3
a. Solve 4 x  4 x 0.
3
Solution: 4 x  4 x 0

4 x 1  x 2 0 
4 x 1  x 1  x  0
x 0 or x 1 or x  1

b. Solve x x  2 x  5  x x  2 0.
2 3

Solution: x x  2 x  5 x x  2 0
2 3

x x  2 x  5   x  2 0
2

x x  2 2 x  7  0
2

2011 Pearson Education, Inc. x 0 or x  2 or x  2 / 7

Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.8 Quadratic Equations

Example 5 – Solution by Factoring

Solve x 2 3.
Solution: x 2 3
x 2  3 0
x  3 x  3 0
x  3 or x  3
Thus, x  3

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.8 Quadratic Equations

Quadratic Formula
• The roots of the quadratic equation
ax 2  bx  c 0

can be given as
 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.8 Quadratic Equations

Example 7 – A Quadratic Equation with One Real Root

2
Solve 2  6 2y  9 y 0 by the quadratic formula.
Solution:
Here a = 9, b = 6√2, and c = 2. The roots are
 6 2 0
y
29 
 6 2 0 2  6 2 0 2
y  or y  
18 3 18 3

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.8 Quadratic Equations

Quadratic-Form Equation
• When a non-quadratic equation can be
transformed into a quadratic equation by an
appropriate substitution, the given equation is
said to have quadratic-form.

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 0: Review of Algebra
0.8 Quadratic Equations

Example 9 – Solving a Quadratic-Form Equation

1 9
Solve 6  3  8 0.
x x

Solution:
2
 1  1
This equation can be written as  3   9 3   8 0
x  x 
Substituting w =1/x3, we have
w 2  9w  8 0
w  8w  1 0
w  8 or w  1
Thus, the roots are
1 1
3
  8 or 3
 1
x x
1
x  or x  1
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