Anatomy and Physiology
First Edition
Gail W. Jenkins/Gerard J. Tortora/Jon Jackson
Chapter 17
The Endocrine System
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Introduction
• The endocrine and nervous systems function together to
regulate body activities
• The endocrine system releases hormones to control body
activities and help maintain homeostasis
• In contrast to the rapid communication and control associated
with the nervous system, the endocrine system responses are
slower and more sustained
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Endocrine System (1 of 3)
TABLE 17.1 Comparison of Control by the Nervous and Endocrine Systems
CHARACTERISTIC NERVOUS SYSTEM ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Mediator molecules Neurotransmitters released locally in response to Hormones delivered to tissues
impulses throughout body by blood
Site of mediator action Close to site of release, at synapse; binds to receptors Far from site of release (usually); binds
in postsynaptic membrane to receptors on or in target cells
Types of target cells Muscle cells (smooth, cardiac, and skeletal), gland cells, Cells throughout body
other neurons
Time to onset of action Typically within milliseconds (thousandths of a second) Seconds to hours or days
Duration of action Generally briefer (milliseconds) Generally longer (seconds to days)
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Endocrine System (2 of 3)
• Types of glands
o Exocrine – secretions enter ducts that carry the secretions to
body surfaces or into cavities
o Endocrine – secrete hormones into interstitial fluid to diffuse
into the blood where they circulate to target tissues and cells
• A hormone is a molecule that is released in one part of the
body but regulates the activity of cells in other parts of the
body
• The endocrine system comprises all the endocrine glands and
hormone-secreting cells
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Endocrine System (3 of 3)
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Role of Hormone Receptors
• Hormones affect only target cells that have specific receptors
to bind to a given hormone
• Number of receptors changes
o Down-regulation – decrease in number of receptors when
hormone is in excess, making target tissue less sensitive
o Up-regulation – increase in number of receptors when a
hormone is deficient, making target tissue more sensitive
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Chemical Classes of Hormones (1 of 3)
• Lipid-soluble
o Steroid hormones
o Thyroid hormones
o Nitric oxide gas
• Water-soluble
o Amine hormones
o Peptide hormones
o Protein hormones
o Eicosanoid hormones
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Chemical Classes of Hormones (2 of 3)
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Chemical Classes of Hormones (3 of 3)
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Hormone Transport in Blood
• Lipid-soluble hormones
o Most circulate attached to transport protein in blood; less than
10% free fraction
o Transport proteins
• Synthesized in the liver
• Increase blood solubility of lipid-soluble hormones
• Prevent loss of small hormone molecules to urine
• Provide a ready reserve of hormones in the blood
• Water-soluble hormones
o Circulate unattached in blood plasma
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Mechanism of Hormone Action
• Various target cells responses
o Synthesis of molecules
o Alteration of cell membrane permeability
o Simulation of membrane transport
o Alteration of metabolic rate
o Contraction of smooth or cardiac muscle
• Lipid-soluble hormones
o Bind to receptors within target cells
• Water-soluble hormones
o Bind to receptors on outside of cell membrane and initiate chain
reaction inside cell
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Action of Lipid-Soluble Hormone
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Action of Water-Soluble Hormone
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Animation (1 of 4)
Mechanisms of Hormone Action
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Control of Hormone Action and Secretion
• Responsiveness of target cells depends on
o Hormone’s concentration
o Abundance of target cell receptors
o Influences exerted by other hormones (permissive, synergistic,
antagonistic)
• Control of hormone secretion
o Signals from the nervous system
o Chemical changes in the blood
o Other hormones
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Animation (2 of 4)
Introduction to Hormonal Regulation, Secretion and Concentratio
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Hypothalamus
• Major integrating link between the nervous and endocrine
systems
o Region of brain below the thalamus
o Cell bodies of neurosecretory cells
• Pituitary gland controls other endocrine glands, but is itself
controlled by the hypothalamus
o Some hypothalamic hormones stimulate or inhibit release of
anterior pituitary hormones
o Others are stored and released from the posterior pituitary
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Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
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Pituitary Gland (1 of 2)
• Connected to hypothalamus by infundibulum
• Sits in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone
• Divided into two anatomically and functionally separate
portions
o Anterior – glandular cells
o Posterior – axon terminals of neurosecretory cells
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Pituitary Gland (2 of 2)
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Hypothalamus/Anterior Pituitary (1 of 2)
• Hypophyseal portal system
o Portal vein links the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary
o Hormones carried from primary to secondary plexus of blood
capillaries
• Anterior pituitary hormones
o Carried from secondary plexus of blood capillaries through
general body circulation to target cells
o Regulate a wide range of bodily activities
o Tropic hormones (tropins) influence the secretion of another
endocrine gland
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Hypothalamus/Anterior Pituitary (2 of 2)
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Control of Anterior Pituitary Secretion
• Releasing hormones from hypothalamus
o Stimulate secretion of anterior pituitary hormones
• Inhibiting hormones from hypothalamus
o Suppress secretion of anterior pituitary hormones
• Negative feedback
o From rising blood levels of hormones released by target glands
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Anterior Pituitary Hormones
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
• Human growth hormone (hGH)
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Prolactin (PRL)
• Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
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Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) (1 of 2)
• Controls the secretion of glucocorticoids such as cortisol from
the adrenal cortex
• Secretion stimulated by corticotropin-releasing (CRH)
hormone from hypothalamus
• Also stimulated by stress-related stimuli
• Rising cortisol blood levels inhibits both ACTH and CRH
release by negative feedback
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Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) (2 of 2)
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Human Growth Hormone (hGH) (1 of 2)
• Promotes synthesis and secretion of insulinlike growth factors
(IGFs) that stimulate body growth and repair, increase
lipolysis, and elevate blood glucose levels
• Secretion stimulated by growth hormone-releasing (GHRH)
and inhibited by growth hormone-inhibiting (GHIH) hormones
from hypothalamus
• Blood glucose level is a major regulator of GHRH and GHIH
secretion
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Human Growth Hormone (hGH) (2 of 2)
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Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
• Stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete triiodothyronine (T3)
and thyroxine (T4)
• Secretion stimulated by thyrotropin-releasing (TRH) from
hypothalamus
• T3 and T4 blood level is a major regulator of TRH secretion
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Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
• In females: targets ovaries for monthly development of
several ovarian follicles that surround a developing oocyte
• In males: targets testes for production of sperm
• Secretion stimulated by gonadotropin-releasing (GnRH)
hormone from hypothalamus
• Blood estrogen or testosterone level is a major regulator of
GnRH and FSH secretion
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Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
• In females: triggers ovulation, the release of oocyte from
ovary, and stimulates secretion of progesterone by ovary after
ovulation; also with FSH stimulates secretion of estrogen by
ovaries
• In males: stimulates secretion of testosterone by the testes
• Secretion stimulated by gonadotropin-releasing (GnRH)
hormone from hypothalamus
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Prolactin (PRL)
• Initiates milk production by mammary glands
• Secretion stimulated by prolactin-releasing (PRH) and
prolactin-inhibiting (PIH) hormones from hypothalamus
• Sucking action of nursing infant causes a reduction in PIH,
therefore increasing PRL secretion
• Function in males not known, but excess causes erectile
dysfunction
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Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
• Function in human is unknown, but receptors in the brain
suggests it may influence brain activity
• Secretion stimulated by excessive level of corticotropin-
releasing hormone (CRH) and inhibited by prolactin-inhibiting
hormone (PIH) from hypothalamus
• Excess can cause darkening of skin
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Anterior Pituitary Hormones Summary (1 of 2)
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Anterior Pituitary Hormones Summary (2 of 2)
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Hypothalamus/Posterior Pituitary (1 of 2)
• Posterior pituitary does not synthesize any hormones
o Stores and releases hormones from hypothalamus
neurosecretory cell axons
o Release triggered by nerve impulses
o Hormones carried from posterior pituitary blood capillaries
through general body circulation to target cells
• Posterior pituitary hormones
o Oxytocin
o Antidiuretic hormone
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Hypothalamus/Posterior Pituitary (2 of 2)
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Oxytocin (OT)
• Enhances smooth muscle contractions in the uterine wall to
facilitate labor and delivery
• Stimulates milk ejection from mammary glands after delivery
• Secretion stimulated by uterine stretching and suckling during
nursing
• Function in males and nonpregnant females not clear, but
may foster parental caretaking and feelings of sexual pleasure
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Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) (1 of 2)
• Causes the kidneys to return more water to the blood while
decreasing urine volume
• Decreases water loss through sweat glands
• Causes constriction of arterioles to increase blood pressure
(also known as vasopressin)
• Secretion stimulated by high blood osmotic pressure,
inhibited by low blood osmotic pressure
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Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) (2 of 2)
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Posterior Pituitary Hormones Summary
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Thyroid Gland (1 of 2)
• Anatomy
o Located inferior to the larynx and anterior to the trachea
o Thyroid follicles with follicular cells that produce
triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4)
o Parafollicular cells produce calcitonin (CT)
• Only endocrine gland that stores its secretory products in
large supply
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Thyroid Gland (2 of 2)
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T3 and T4 (1 of 2)
• Synthesized from iodine and tyrosine within thyroglobulin
• Transported in the blood bound to thyroxine-binding globulin
• Secretion controlled by thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
from hypothalamus and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
from anterior pituitary
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T3 and T4 (2 of 2)
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Thyroid Gland Control
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Calcitonin (CT)
• Lowers the blood levels of calcium and phosphates
• Promotes the up-take into bone extracellular matrix
• Secretion stimulated by high level of calcium in the blood
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Thyroid Gland Hormones Summary
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Parathyroid Gland and Hormone (1 of 2)
• Anatomy
o Embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland
o Chief cells produce parathyroid hormone (PTH)
o Oxyphil cell function not known
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Parathyroid Gland and Hormone (2 of 2)
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Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
• Regulates blood levels of calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+),
and phosphate (HPO42–)
o Causes increased Ca2+ and HPO42– release from bones to blood
o Decreases loss of Ca2+ and Mg2+ from blood to urine
o Increases the loss of HPO42– from blood to urine
o Stimulates synthesis of calcitriol by kidneys, which increases
absorption of Ca2+, HPO42–, and Mg2+ from ingested food into blood
• Secretion stimulated by high level of calcium in blood
(opposite effect to calcitonin)
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Parathyroid Gland Control
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Parathyroid Gland Hormone Summary
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Adrenal Gland (1 of 2)
• Anatomy
o Located superior to each kidney
• Structurally and functionally two distinct regions
o Adrenal cortex – three zones produce steroid hormones
• Outer zone: mineralocorticoids
• Middle zone: glucocorticoids
• Inner zone: androgens
o Adrenal medulla – modified sympathetic ganglion of
autonomic nervous system secrete hormones
• Epinephrine and norepinephrine
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Adrenal Gland (2 of 2)
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Aldosterone (1 of 2)
• Major mineralocorticoid produced
• Increases kidney reabsorption of sodium (Na+) and water from
urine to the blood
• Increases excretion of potassium (K+) into urine
• Helps adjust blood pressure and blood volume
• Secretion is controlled by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone
pathway
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Aldosterone (2 of 2)
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Cortisol (1 of 2)
• Major glucocorticoid produced
• Regulates metabolism and resistance to stress
o Increases protein breakdown
o Enhances glucose formation
o Breaks down triglycerides
o Inhibits inflammation and immune system response
• Secretion is controlled by corticotropin-releasing hormone
(CRH) from the hypothalamus and adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary
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Cortisol (2 of 2)
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Androgen
• Produced in both males and females, but more significant
effect in females
• Stimulate growth of axillary and pubic hair, aid prepubertal
growth spurts, and contribute to libido in females
• Secretion is not well understood, but controlled by
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
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Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
• Augment the sympathetic nervous system fight-or-flight
response
o Increase heart rate and force of contraction
o Increase blood flow to heart, liver, skeletal muscles, and
adipose tissue
o Dilate airways to lung
o Increase blood levels of glucose and fatty acids
• Secretion is controlled directly by the autonomic nervous
system during stressful situations and during exercise
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Adrenal Gland Hormones Summary
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Pancreas (1 of 2)
• Anatomy
o Located in the abdomen near the duodenum of the small
intestine
• Both an endocrine and exocrine gland
o Exocrine – digestive enzymes
o Endocrine – secrete hormones
• Pancreatic islet of endocrine cells
o Alpha cells – secrete glucagon
o Beta cells – secrete insulin
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Pancreas (2 of 2)
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Glucagon and Insulin (1 of 2)
• Low blood glucose level causes secretion of glucagon
o Acts on liver cells to release glucose into the blood
• High blood glucose level causes secretion of insulin
o Acts on body cells to increase diffusion of glucose from blood
into cells
o Increases protein and fatty acid synthesis
• Secretion of both also affected by autonomic nervous system,
diet, and other hormones
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Glucagon and Insulin (2 of 2)
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Pancreas Hormones Summary
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Ovaries and Testes (1 of 2)
• Ovary
o Located in the pelvic cavity
o Produce estrogen and progesterone to regulate female reproductive
cycle and maintain pregnancy
• Testes
o Located in scrotum
o Produce testosterone and androgen to regulate sperm production
• Both
o Promote development of secondary sex characteristics and produce
inhibin which inhibits FSH secretion
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Ovaries and Testes (2 of 2)
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Pineal Gland (1 of 2)
• Anatomy
o Attached to the roof of the third ventricle in the brain
• Secretes the hormone melatonin, which contributes to setting
the body’s biological clock
• Melatonin blood level rises during sleep
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Pineal Gland (2 of 2)
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Other Organs and Tissues (1 of 2)
TABLE 17.11 Hormones Produced by Other Organs and Tissues That Contain
Endocrine Cells
HORMONE PRINCIPAL ACTIONS
GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
Gastrin Promotes secretion of gastric juice; increases movements of the
stomach
Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP) Stimulates release of insulin by pancreatic beta cells
Secretin Stimulates secretion of pancreatic juice and bile
Cholecystokinin (CCK) Stimulates secretion of pancreatic juice; regulates release of bile from
gallbladder; causes feeling of fullness after eating
PLACENTA
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) Stimulates corpus luteum in ovary to continue production of
estrogens and progesterone to maintain pregnancy
Estrogens and progesterone Maintain pregnancy; help prepare mammary glands to secrete milk
Human chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS) Stimulates development of mammary glands for lactation
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Other Organs and Tissues (2 of 2)
HORMONE PRINCIPAL ACTIONS
KIDNEYS
Renin Part of reaction sequence that raises blood pressure by bringing
about vasoconstriction and secretion of aldosterone
Erythropoietin (EPO) Increases rate of red blood cell formation
Calcitriol* (active form of vitamin D) Aids in absorption of dietary calcium and phosphorus
HEART
Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) Decreases blood pressure
ADIPOSE TISSUE
Leptin Suppresses appetite; may increase FSH and LH activity
*Synthesis begins in the skin, continues in the liver, and ends in the kidneys.
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Animation (3 of 4)
Hormonal Cycles
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Animation (4 of 4)
General Adaptation Syndrome
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End of Chapter 17
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