Discrete Mathematics/Discrete Mathematics and its applications

UNIT 2: POSETS and Lattices

Partial order relation, Partial Order Sets (POSETS), Representation of POSETS using
Hasse diagram, Maximal and minimal point, Greatest Lower Bound (glb), Least Upper
Bound (lub), Lattices, Principle of duality, Sublattices, Distributed lattices.
Combinatorics: Introduction, Counting Techniques, Pigeonhole Principle.

Discrete Mathematic CSN 202 / CAN103

School of Computing
DIT University
Partial Order Sets (POSETs)
Partial order relation?
• A relation R on a set A is called a partial order relation if it is:
• Reflexive: Every element is related to itself. (a, a) ∈ R
• Antisymmetric: If (a, b) ∈ R and (b, a) ∈ R, then a = b.
• Transitive: If (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R, then (a, c) ∈ R.
Example
Set: A = {1, 2, 3}
• Relation: ≤ (less than or equal to)
• Pairs:
(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (1,2), (1,3), (2,3)
• Reflexive: Yes, (1,1), (2,2), (3,3).
• Antisymmetric: No pair like (2,1) and (1,2) unless 1 = 2.
• Transitive: (1,2) and (2,3) ⇒ (1,3).
• Thus, (A, ≤) is a POSET.
Combination of partial order sets
If you have two partially ordered sets (posets), you can combine them
to create a new poset using operations like:
Direct Product (Cartesian Product)
Union (in some contexts)
The most common method is the direct product of two posets.
Direct Product of Posets:
If (A, ≤₁) and (B, ≤₂) are two posets,
their direct product is a new poset:
A × B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A, b ∈ B}
with order defined as:
(a₁, b₁) ≤ (a₂, b₂)
if and only if
a₁ ≤₁ a₂ and b₁ ≤₂ b₂
Example
Let
A = {1, 2} with natural order (1 ≤ 2)
B = {x, y} with x ≤ y
Then the Cartesian product A × B =
{(1, x), (1, y), (2, x), (2, y)}
Now define the partial order:
For example,
(1, x) ≤ (2, y) because 1 ≤ 2 and x ≤ y
but
(2, x) and (1, y) are not comparable, since 2 ≥ 1 but x ≤ y
This is a partial order, not total
Representation of POSETS using Hasse diagram.
What is a Hasse Diagram?

• A Hasse diagram is a graphical representation of a partially ordered

set (poset).
• It shows how elements in a set are related under a partial order.
• It helps visualize the ordering without drawing all the lines for
transitivity (i.e., we skip redundant edges).
Key concepts
Partial order
• A relation ≤ on a set P is called a partial order if it is:
• Reflexive: Every element is related to itself.
Antisymmetric: If a≤b and b≤a , then a=b.
Transitive: If a≤b and b≤c , then a≤c.
Example of a poset
Let’s take the set A={1,2,4,8} with the relation "divides" (|).
• 1 divides 2, 4, 8.
• 2 divides 4, 8.
• 4 divides 8.
• 8 divides 8 (reflexivity).
Drawing the Hasse diagram
Steps:
• Draw each element as a point (node).
• Draw edges only for "immediate" relationships (called cover
relations):
• Draw an edge from a to b if a<b and there is no element c such that
a<c<b.
• Place smaller elements lower and larger elements higher.
• Omit loops and transitive edges.
Diagram for example A={1,2,4,8}.
8
|
4
|
2
|
1
• 1 < 2 < 4 <8 - Also associating a CHAIN
• 1 at the bottom since it divides everyone.
• 2 above 1.
• 4 above 2.
• 8 above 4.
• Here, edges represent immediate divisibility, not showing all possible implied paths (like
1 divides 4 — that’s implied via 1 → 2 → 4).
Why is Hasse diagram useful?
• It makes it easy to visualize hierarchy.
• You can see maximal and minimal elements clearly.
• Used in lattice theory, order theory, and discrete math.

Summary points
• Shows direct relations only (called covering relations).
• Hasse diagram is a simplified diagram for a poset.
• No loops or redundant transitive connections.
• Lower element means "less than" in the poset.
Hasse diagram (for the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12})

12

6 4

3 2

1
Maximal and Minimal points
• Maximal element
No other element above it.
• Minimal element
No other element below it.

• Example
• Set: {1, 2, 3}

Relation: ≤
Minimal: 1
• Maximal: 3
 Maximal and Minimal Elements
Let S be a partially ordered set. An element a in S is called a minimal element if no
other element of S strictly precedes (is less than) a.

• Similarly, an element b in S is called a maximal element if no element of S strictly

succeeds (is larger than) b.

• Geometrically speaking, a is a minimal element if no edge enters a (from below),

and b is a maximal element if no edge leaves b (in the upward direction). We note
that S can have more than one minimal and more than one maximal element.
Greatest Lower Bound (glb) or Infimum

• The biggest element that is less than or equal to all elements in the
subset.
• It’s like the highest common factor (HCF) when talking about
numbers with “divides” relation.
Example
Set
A = {1, 2, 3, 6}
Relation: divides (|)
Subset
{2, 3}
Check which elements divide both 2 and 3.
1 divides everything.
Is there any bigger element? No.
So, glb = 1.
Least Upper Bound (lub) or
Supremum
• The smallest element that is greater than or equal to all elements in
the subset.
• It’s like the lowest common multiple (LCM) when talking about
numbers with “divides” relation.
Example
Set
A = {1, 2, 3, 6}
Relation: divides (|)
Subset
{2, 3}
Check which elements are divisible by both 2 and 3.
Possible candidates in set: 6 (since 6 is divisible by 2 and 3).
Is there any smaller element than 6 that is divisible by both? No.
So, lub = 6.
HASSE DIAGRAM 6
|
3
|
2
|
1
• For subset {2, 3}:

• glb: Go down to common point → 1.(1 DIVIDES BOTH 2 AND 3)

• lub: Go up to common join point → 6.(2 and 3 BOTH ARE DIVISIBLE BY 6)

• glb : biggest common factor from below.

• lub : smallest common multiple from above.

 Join Semi Lattice
• In a Poset if Least Upper Bound(LUB) exists for every pair of elements
then Poset is called as Join Semi Lattice
For Eg:-
 Meet Semi Lattice
• In a Poset if Greatest Lower Bound(GLB) exists for every pair of
elements then Poset is called as Meet Semi Lattice
For Eg:-
 LATTICE
• A Poset is called Lattice if it is both Meet Semi Lattice and Join Semi
Lattice.
OR
• A Poset is in which every pair of elements has both LUB and GLB is
called a Lattice.
Bounded Lattice
A bounded lattice is a lattice that has both:
• a least element (called 0, the bottom)
• a greatest element (called 1, the top)
That means:
• For every element a in the lattice:
• 0≤a≤1
Example
Let’s take the power set of S = {a, b}, ordered by inclusion (⊆):
P(S) = {∅, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}
• Join (∨) = union (∪)
• Meet (∧) = intersection (∩)
• Least element (0) = ∅
• Greatest element (1) = {a, b}
So, this is a bounded lattice because:
• ∅ is included in all subsets
• {a, b} includes all subsets
Example
Set L = {0, 1, 2, 3, 6}, with
• a ∨ b = LCM(a, b)
• a ∧ b = GCD(a, b)
Then:
• Least element = 0
• Greatest element = 6

So, it is a bounded lattice under LCM and GCD.

Key Terms
Term Meaning

Lattice Each pair has join & meet

Bounded Lattice Also has top (1) and bottom (0)

Top element (1) Greatest in the set

Bottom element (0) Least in the set

Lattices
• A POSET where every pair of elements has a glb and lub.

• Example
Set: {1, 2, 3, 6}
Relation: divides (|)
lub(2, 3) = 6
glb(2, 3) = 1
This set forms a lattice.
Example that does NOT form a
lattice -
"If any pair in a set does not have both glb and lub, then the set
cannot be a lattice.“
Example that does NOT form a lattice
Set
S = {1, 2, 3}
Relation
Divides (|)
• Pair to check
• Let’s check the pair {2, 3}.
Find glb (meet)
Elements dividing both 2 and 3:
1 divides both.
Greatest among them: 1.
glb = 1
• Find lub (join)
Elements divisible by both 2 and 3 in set S.
Possible candidates: 6 (LCM of 2 and 3), but 6 is not in S!
So in set {1, 2, 3}, there is no element divisible by both 2 and 3.
Since lub does not exist for (2, 3) in S, this set does not form a lattice.
Principle of Duality
• In lattice theory, duality means that every statement or formula has
a corresponding "dual" statement, which we get by:
• Interchanging join and meet:
∨↔∧
• Interchanging top (1) and bottom (0) elements:
1↔0
Basic lattice operations
• Join (∨): Think of it as taking lub (least upper bound).
• Meet (∧): Think of it as taking glb (greatest lower bound).
• 0: Least element (bottom).
• 1: Greatest element (top).
• Why is it useful?
• It helps us create new correct statements easily.
• We can avoid proving similar statements twice — once we prove a
statement, its dual is also true!
EXAMPLES
1. Absorption laws - a ∨ (a ∧ b) = a
Meaning: If you take the meet first and then join with a, you get back a.
• Dual law - To find the dual, swap ∨ and ∧, swap 1 and 0 if present.
a∧(a∨b)=a
2. Idempotent law
Original
a∨a=a
Dual
a∧a=a
3. Complementation

Original: a∨a′=1
Dual: a∧a′=0
Key Points

Original Dual

∨ (join) ∧ (meet)

0 (bottom) 1 (top)

1 (top) 0 (bottom)

“Duality helps us create a new correct statement by just

swapping join and meet, and swapping 0 and 1.”
Example with numbers
Think of elements as sets.
∧ = intersection (∩).
∨ = union (∪).
Sets
A = {1, 2, 3}
B = {2, 3, 4}
• Step 1: Find meet (a ∧ b)
• a ∧ b = A ∩ B = {2, 3}
• Step 2: Find join with a
• a ∨ (a ∧ b) = A ∪ (A ∩ B)
= {1, 2, 3} ∪ {2, 3}
= {1, 2, 3}
• Final
• a ∨ (a ∧ b) = A = {1, 2, 3}
Matches the law!
Basic Axioms of lattices

• Commutative: a ∨ b = b ∨ a, a ∧ b = b ∧ a
• Associative: (a ∨ b) ∨ c = a ∨ (b ∨ c)
• Absorption: a ∨ (a ∧ b) = a
• Idempotent: a ∨ a = a, a ∧ a = a
Sublattices
• A subset of a lattice which is also a lattice by itself, with the same
meet and join.

• Example
Lattice: {1, 2, 4, 8}
Subset: {1, 2, 4}
Forms a sublattice.
 Distributed lattices.
• Definition
• A lattice is called distributive if it satisfies these two laws for all elements a, b, and c:
a∨(b∧c)=(a∨b)∧(a∨c)
a∧(b∨c)=(a∧b)∨(a∧c)
• What does it mean?
Join (∨) distributes over meet (∧).
Meet (∧) distributes over join (∨).

• This is similar to how multiplication distributes over addition in arithmetic:

a×(b+c)=a×b+a×c
Complete Lattice
A complete lattice is a poset in which every subset (not just every pair)
has:
• a least upper bound (supremum)
• and a greatest lower bound (infimum)
That includes all subsets, even infinite ones.
Example
Let P(S) be the power set of a set S = {a, b}, ordered by inclusion (⊆):
So, P(S) = {∅, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}
• The join (least upper bound) is union ( ∪ )
• The meet (greatest lower bound) is intersection ( ∩ )
Since every subset of P(S) has a join and meet → Complete lattice
Example of a distributive lattice
• Example: Power set lattice
Let S = {1, 2}
Power set elements
P(S) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {1, 2}}
• Operations
• ∨ = union (∪)
• ∧ = intersection (∩)
• Check distributive law
Choose:
a = {1}
b = {2}
c=∅

• Left side
a∪(b∩c)
First, b ∩ c = {2} ∩ ∅ = ∅
Then,
a∪∅=1
• Right side
(a∪b)∩(a∪c)

a ∪ b = {1} ∪ {2} = {1, 2}

a ∪ c = {1} ∪ ∅ = {1}
Then,
1,2∩1=1{1, 2}

Both sides equal!

So, distributive law holds.
Power set lattice is distributive.
 SUMMARY TABLE
Concept Example

POSET (A, ≤), (A, divides)

Hasse Diagram Divisibility diagram

Maximal 3 in {1, 2, 3} with ≤

Minimal 1 in {1, 2, 3} with ≤

glb, lub glb(2, 3) = 1, lub(2, 3) = 6

Lattice {1, 2, 3, 6} with divides

Sublattice {1, 2, 4} in {1, 2, 4, 8}

Distributive If distributive laws hold

Power set P({a, b}) with union ∪ and intersection ∩; 0 = ∅, 1 =

Bounded Lattice
{a, b}

Power set of any set, since every subset has both supremum
Complete Lattice
and infimum
Basic counting principles
There are two basic counting principles as follows:

1. Addition Principle (Rule of Sum)

2. Multiplication Principle (Rule of Product)

Addition Principle (Rule of Sum)
• Suppose some event E can occur in m ways and a second event F can
occur in n ways, and suppose both events cannot occur
simultaneously.

Then E or F can occur in m + n ways.

• Sum Rule: If no two events can occur at the same time, then one of
the events can occur in:
n1 + n2 + n3 + ・ ・ ・ ways.
Example
1. A person can go to office by 2 bus routes or 3 train routes.
Total ways to reach the office = 2 + 3 = 5 ways

2. A student can choose either a Science elective (4 options) or a

Commerce elective (3 options).
Total choices = 4 (Science) + 3 (Commerce) = 7 ways

3. You’re choosing a gift from two different stores:

Store A has 5 items
Store B has 4 items
You can buy from only one store
Total gift choices = 5 + 4 = 9 ways
Multiplication Principle (Rule of
Product)
• Suppose there is an event E which can occur in m ways and,
independent of this event, there is a second event F which can occur
in n ways.

Then combinations of E and F can occur in mn ways.

• Product Rule: If the events occur one after the other, then all the
events can occur in the order indicated in:
n1 ・ n2 ・ n3 ・ . . . ways.
Example

1. You have 4 shirts and 3 trousers.

Total outfits = 4 × 3 = 12 combinations.

2. At a restaurant:
2 starters, 3 main courses , 2 desserts
Total meal combinations (1 from each category):
2×3×2=12
3. Suppose a college has 3 different history courses, 4 different
literature courses, and 2 different sociology courses.

(a) The number m of ways a student can choose one of each kind of
courses is:
m = 3(4)(2) = 24
(b) The number n of ways a student can choose just one of the courses
is:
n=3+4+2=9
Summary
(1) Sum Rule Principle: Suppose A and B are disjoint sets. Then
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B)

(2) Product Rule Principle: Let A × B be the Cartesian product of sets A

and B. Then
n(A × B) = n(A) ・ n(B)
Permutations
Permutations are arrangements of objects where order matters.
Formula:
Where:
n = total number of elements
r = number of elements chosen
Examples
1. How many ways can you arrange 3 out of 5 books on a shelf?
2. How many ways to arrange the letters in “DOG”?
3!=6 arrangements: DOG, DGO, ODG, OGD, GDO, GOD

3. Permutations with Repetition

If some elements repeat,
Example
1. How many ways to arrange the word “MOM”?
M occurs 2 times, O once

Arrangements: MOM, OMM, MMO

2. Find the number m of seven-letter words that can be formed using
the letters of the word “BENZENE.”
We seek the number of permutations of 7 objects of which 3 are alike
(the three E’s), and 2 are alike (the two N’s).
Combinations
Combinations are selections of objects where order doesn't matter.

Formula:

Where:
n = total number of elements
r = number of elements chosen
Examples
1. From 6 people, how many ways to select 2 for a team?

C(6,2)==740 Ways

2. From 4 fruits: Apple, Banana, Mango, Guava – how many 2-fruit

combos?

C(4,2) =
Combinations: AB, AM, AG, BM, BG, MG
Binomial Theorem
The Binomial Theorem provides a way to expand expressions of the
form:
(a+b)n

without multiplying the binomial repeatedly.

Binomial Theorem Formula

Where:
n: a non-negative integer
: binomial coefficient (also called "n choose k")
: term in the expansion
The expansion contains n+1 terms
Examples
1. Expand (x+2)3

(x+2)3=x3(2)0 + x2(2)1 + x1(2)2 + x0(2)3

Now simplify:

=1x3 + 3x2 (2) + 3x (4) + 1 (8) = x3 + 6 x2 + 12x + 8

2. Expand (a−b)4

Use the same formula, but with signs:

The signs alternate because of the negative term.

Applications of Binomial
Theorem.
• Combinatorics and counting
• Probability and statistics
• Computer science (e.g., analysis of algorithms)
• Approximations (Binomial Approximation)
Practice Problem
• Expand (x−1)4

= x4 − 4x3 + 6x2 – 4x + 1
How to Find a Specific Term?
• General Term