Література:

1. Кобрина Н.А., Корнеева Е.А., Оссовская М.И., Гузеева К.А. Грамматика английского языка:
Морфология. Синтаксис. – СПб., СОЮЗ, 1999. – 496 с.
2. Борисов О.О., Ганжа І.В., Новицька Т.В. Синтаксис сучасної англійської мови: теоретичні та
практичні аспекти. Навчальний посібник. – Чернігів: Видавництво “Десна Поліграф”, 2021. – 140 с.
3. Потапенко С.І., Харитонов І.К. Сучасний англійський синтаксис. Навчальний посібник. – Ніжин:
Видавництво НДПУ, 2005. – 106 с.
4. Каушанская В.Л. Грамматика английского языка. Пособие для студентов педагогических
институтов / В.Л. Каушанская, Р.Л. Ковнер, О.Н. Кожевникова, Е.В. Прокофьева и др. – 5-е изд., испр.
и доп. – М.: Айрис-пресс, 2008. – 384 с.
5. Сітко А.В. Практична граматика англійської мови для студентів спеціальності “Переклад”. Кн. 2. /
А.В. Сітко та ін. – 2-ге вид. – Вінниця: Нова книга, 2018. – 376 с.

Практичні завдання:

1. Борисов О.О., Ганжа І.В., Новицька Т.В. Синтаксис сучасної англійської мови: теоретичні та
практичні аспекти. Навчальний посібник. – Чернігів: Видавництво “Десна Поліграф”, 2021. – 140 с.
2. Остапенко С.А. Методичні рекомендації з вивчення дисципліни «Практичний курс основної
іноземної мови (практична граматика)», ступінь бакалавр, 4 курс. – Кривий Ріг : [ДонНУЕТ], 2019. –
143 с.
3. Потапенко С.І., Харитонов І.К. Сучасний англійський синтаксис. Навчальний посібник. – Ніжин:
Видавництво НДПУ, 2005. – 106 с.
4. Каушанская В.Л. и др. Сборник упражнений по грамматике английского языка. – М., 2006. – 214 с.
5. Krutikov Y.A., Kuzmina I.S., Rabinivich Kh.V. Exercises in Modern English Grammar. – Moscow, Higher
Publishing House, 1964. – 269 p.
 SYNTAX
Syntax is the part of grammar which deals with sentences and combinability of words. The core of syntax is the study of
the sentence, its components, their structure, relations between these components, and structural and communicative
types of sentences.

THE SENTENCE
The sentence is a unit of speech which serves as the main means of communication, i.e. conveying some facts about
reality and showing the speaker’s attitude to it. It is a set of words united by intonation and giving a complete thought.
Anything that is said in the act of communication is called an utterance. They fall into two groups: sentences and non-
sentence utterances.

Sentences may be regarded from the point of view of their structure and their communicative value. Thus the
classification of sentences is based on 2 principles: according to 1) the structure and 2) the purpose of the
utterance.

1) Structural classification of sentences

1. Simple or composite (compound and complex).
2. Complete or incomplete (elliptical).
3. Two-member (double-nucleus) or one-member (single-nucleus).

1. The simple sentence contains only one subject-predicate unit.

The composite sentence is a sentence which contains two or more subject-predicate units. These units are called
clauses.

Honesty is the best policy. (one subject-predicate unit)

Still waters run deep. (one subject-predicate unit)
2. Complete and incomplete (elliptical) sentences are There is also a category of sentences named simple
distinguished by the presence or absence of word-forms in the complicated. They contain:
principal positions of two-member sentences.
In a complete sentence both the principal positions are filled with 1) homogenous parts in the function of principal or
word-forms. secondary parts
When did you arrive? Oscar Wilde and “Dorian Gray” are naturally associated
I came straight here. together.
In the middle of nowhere we unexpectedly found
In an incomplete (elliptical) sentence one or both of the main bungalows and semi-detached houses.
positions are not filled, but can be easily supplied from the context.
Elliptical sentences are typical of conversational English. 2) dependent appendices:
Cheerful, aren’t you? - complex object
Ready? I can’t bear tooth pain killing me inside.
Could’ve been professional. - complex subject
Wrong again. “Real” is believed to be a favorite in the match.
- various absolute constructions
3. One-member and two-member sentences are distinguished by The water over, the desert becomes immediately scary.
the number of principal parts (positions) they contain: two-member Hello and thanks distributed, the committee sat down to
sentences have two main parts - the subject and the predicate, work.
while one-member sentences have only one principal part, which is With him being on this mission, everyone was confident
neither the subject nor the predicate. in the ultimate result.
- the constructions with comparison as…as, than
Two-member sentences: smth/smb and but in vain
The magpie flew off. They send the rescue team but in vain.
We are going to my house now. One World Trade Center is not as tall as Burj Khalifa.
Mussaurus (“mouse lizard”) of the Late Triassic Period is
One-member sentences: a much smaller dinosaur than Brachiosaurus (“arm
An old park. lizard”).
Mid-summer. - tags
Low tide, dusty water. You pulled the pin, didn’t you?
 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

One-member sentences Two-member sentences 1

One-member sentences in English are of two types: The basic pattern of a simple sentence in English is one subject-
nominal sentences and verbal sentences. predicate unit, that is, it has two main (principal) positions: those
of the subject and of the predicate. The verb in the predicate
1. Nominal sentences are those in which the principal position may be intransitive, transitive, ditransitive or a link verb.
part is expressed by a noun. They state the existence of Here are the main variants of the fundamental (basic) pattern:
the things expressed by them. They are typical of 1. John ran.
descriptions. Nominal sentences may be: 2. John is a student.
a) unextended 3. John is clever.
Silence. Summer. Midnight. 4. John learned French.
5. John gives Mary his books.
b) extended 6. John lives in London/there.
Dusk - of a summer night. 7. We found John guilty.
The grass, this good, soft, lush grass.
English spring flowers! The basic pattern may be unextended or extended.
An unextended sentence contains two main positions of the basic
2. Verbal sentences are those in which the principal pattern, that of the subject and the predicate.
part is expressed by a non-finite form of the verb, either Mary laughed.
an infinitive or a gerund. Infinitive and gerundial one- Mary is a doctor.
member sentences are mostly used to describe different Mary is happy.
emotional perceptions of reality.
An extended sentence may contain various optional elements
To think of that! (attributes, objects and adverbial modifiers).
To think that he should have met her again in this way! John ran quickly to me.
Living at the mercy of a woman! My friend John is a very kind student.
Mary laughed heartily at the joke.
 Two-member sentences 2

A two-member sentence may be either complete or incomplete (elliptical) . An elliptical sentence is a sentence in which
one or more word-forms in the principal positions are omitted. Ellipsis here refers only to the structural elements of the
sentence, not the informational ones. This means that those words can be omitted, because they 1) have only grammatical,
structural relevance, and 2) do not carry any new relevant information.
In English elliptical sentences are only those having no word-forms in the subject and predicate positions, i.e., in the
positions which constitute the structural core of the sentence.
There are several types of elliptical sentences:
3. Sentences without a word-form only in part of the predicate
1. Sentences without a word-form in the subject
position, which may be an auxiliary or a link verb.
position.
You seen them?
Looks like rain.
Everything fixed?
Seems difficult.
You sure?
Don’t know anything about it.
All settled.
2. Sentences without word-forms in the subject
4. Sentences without word-forms both in the subject and the
position and part of the predicate position. In such
predicate position. Such ellipses occur in various responses.
cases the omitted part of the predicate may be either
What time does Dave come for lunch? - One o’clock.
a) an auxiliary verb or b) a link verb.
What were you thinking about? - You.
a) Going home soon?
What do you want of us? Miracles?
See what I mean?
Where’re you going? - Home.
Heard nothing about him lately.
5. Sentences without a word-form in the predicate position. Such
b) Not bad.
ellipses occur only in replies to questions.
Free this evening?
Who lives there? - Jack.
Nice of you to come.
What’s happened? - Nothing.
Susan’s father?
 NON-SENTENCE UTTERANCES

There are utterances which do not constitute sentences (non-sentence utterances). They are:

1. Vocatives.
Charles?
Mr West!

2. “Yes-no” utterances. These are mostly responses to “yes-no” questions.

Are you coming? - Yes/No.

3. Interjections.
Hi! (Hey!) Oh!
Dear me! - Боже мій!
Look here! - Послухай!
Well, I never! - От тобі й на! Оце так-так! Ну і ну!
Goodness gracious! - Боже мій! Господи! Отакої!

4. Different conversational formulas.

Thanks.
Good-bye.
Bye-bye.
 NEGATION
Both structural and communicative types of sentences fall into affirmative sentences and negative sentences.
A sentence is made negative by the particle not which is the most widely used negator. It is put immediately after
the auxiliary or modal verb.

The negator not has two forms: uncontracted and Aren’t I tired! (= I am very tired)
contracted. b) invitations
They’ve come. - They have not come. - They’ve not Won’t you come in and have a cup of tea?
come./They haven’t come.
Tom is arriving tomorrow. - Tom is not arriving tomorrow. - In answer to negative questions yes and no are used
Tom isn’t arriving tomorrow./Tom’s not arriving tomorrow. according to the facts and not according to the form of
the question.
A sentence can contain only one negator. Not is usually , Haven’t you seen the film? - Yes (I have seen it). Or: No
attached to the predicate verb, and other negative words (I haven’t seen it).
are unnecessary in the sentence, unlike similar cases in
Ukrainian. Not can be attached to other parts of the sentence,
I don’t know anything about it. (1 negator) - Я нічого не not only the predicate verb. In this case it comes
знаю про це. (2 negators) before the word or phrase it negates.
I didn’t say anything to anybody. (1 negator) - Я нікому It’s here, not upstairs.
нічого не сказав. (3 negators) It’s a tiger, not a cat.

In negative questions the place of the negator not Negative infinitives are made by putting not or
depends on whether it is contracted or uncontracted. never before the infinitive (and before the particle to if
Don’t you see? - Do you not see? there is one). Negative ing-forms are made in the
Can’t you come with me? - Can you not come with me? same way.
It was impossible not to invite the Butlers.
Negative questions are often used as: He left never to return.
a) exclamations He was desperate at not having seen her.
In short answers or orders with the verbs of mental activity He hardly thinks of anything else.
think, believe, hope, suppose, be afraid and after the b) The adverbs sometimes and already are changed to
conjunction if the negator not may replace the sentence or ever and yet respectively.
clause it negates. Mrs. Greene hardly ever plays tennis now.
Will it rain today? - I hope not. c) They are generally followed by positive, not negative,
Can you come today? – I’m afraid not. tag question.
She scarcely seems to care, does she?
Transferred negation Little and few have the same effect on sentences.
After the verbs of mental activity think, believe, suppose and There’s little point in doing anything about it, is there?
imagine the negation which belongs to the object clause is
transferred to the principal clause. Double negatives are sometimes possible in standard
I don’t think you've heard about it (= I think you haven’t English, but only if both negative words have their full
heard about it). meaning and this serves for the sake of emphasis.
I don’t believe he has come (= I believe he hasn’t come). You’ve no reason not to trust me.
Do you think Julius will try to see you? - No, he won’t. But
Besides not there are other words that can serve as he won’t try not to either.
negators and make the sentence negative: no, nobody, She wouldn’t like to live in a place not so nice.
nothing, nowhere, none (of) no one, and also neither (of), John hadn’t been a crime reporter for nothing.
never and the conjunction neither... nor. It’s not only not important, it’s not a fact.
No sensible man would say that.
Nobody knows about it. Double negatives may neutralize each other and then the
None of the applicants were German. ultimate meaning of the sentence is positive.
He has nothing to say. You’ve no reason not to trust me (= You must trust me).
I just couldn’t do nothing (= I had to do something).
Besides negators there are other words that make a
sentence negative in meaning: seldom, rarely... (= not often); By removing one of the negators the sentence is made
hardly, scarcely, barely... (= almost... not, hardly ever, negative in meaning.
scarcely ever). I just could do nothing.
They have the same effect on the sentence as other negators,
that is exclude other negators.
 THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE

The composite sentence is a sentence which contains The cheetah runs very quickly but it’s not comparable with
two or more subject-predicate units. These units are called the brown hare. (compound, two clauses)
clauses.
Composite sentences are divided into two main types: The coach noticed that the hockey team had surrendered long
compound and complex. Either type of the sentence before the final whistle had sounded. (complex, three clauses)
consists of two or more clauses united semantically and
grammatically. A composite compound-complex sentence is a union of
coordinate and subordinate clauses with coordination being
Clauses of such sentences may be connected the main connection between the clauses.
syndetically, i.e. by means of conjunctions and High-quality blockbusters and detectives are amazing but
conjunctive words (adverbs or pronouns), or thrillers are psychologically more intense though their
asyndetically, i.e. without any connectors. viewing is not recommended for everyone.

The difference between compound and complex sentences A composite complex-compound sentence is a union of
is in the relations of coordination and subordination. coordinate and subordinate clauses with subordination being
the main connection between clauses.
The clauses of a compound sentence are independent The neural network is a system of nerves that receives
and called coordinate. Coordination is a connection of two signals from the brain and the brain makes the body do
or more clauses of equal rank and function via something.
conjunctions and, but, or, for, etc. or conjunctive adverbs
therefore, so, otherwise, etc. The most spread approach, however, is a simple reference of
the sentences mentioned above to the category compound-
The clauses of a complex sentence are called complex / complex-compound sentences.
subordinate and form a unit resembling a simple sentence
in which some part is replaced by a clause. Subordination
is a non-symmetrical relation with the main (principal,
head) clause and the subordinate clause(s) via
There are also constructions that remind complex sentences due to their two-clause structure or stand as a part of
a sentence used in conditional mood or as a comparative clause. These syntactical units can be easily converted
into simple ones, thus their name is pseudo-complex sentences. The are:

1) emphatic (cleft) sentences, with the first part (main clause) being only emphatic (emotional)
It is Ryanair that cancelled the flights. ——> Ryanair cancelled the flights.
What was that you loved best in Cyprus? ——> What did you love best in Cyprus?
It is the Minister who messaged the migration figures. ——> The Minister messaged the migration figures.

2) appended clauses (повтори з уточненням), i.e. clauses for intensifying a fact mentioned in the previous
clause
He is always very gloomy, is that John of yours.
She is a clever girl, is your friend.
He never told me anything, did your brother.

3) absolute clauses that are used independently from the main clause
If only I knew his address!
As though you didn’t know!
That he should be so late!

4) parenthesis expressed by (not only through words but via) phrases and clauses (my aunt, dear me, oh my eye,
frankly speaking, I see, to start with, at least, you know, on the one/other hand, etc.)
Traffic hold-ups on the highway – and they are tremendous – prevent police and ambulance cars to operate
effectively.
A rowing machine, it stood in the attic, was long-forgotten.
To be frank with you, this case should never have come to court.
 2) The Classification According to the Purpose of the
Utterance
1. Declarative sentence states a fact in the affirmative or 4) disjunctive (tag-questions)
negative form, with the subject preceding the predicate. You know French, don’t you? – Yes, a bit.
We are from Ukraine. Mark is a football fan, isn’t he? – He certainly is.
Cathy is a nurse. You are not tired, aren’t you?
She wasn’t ready. He can’t ski, can he?
The train didn’t come.
5) suggestive (the word-order of declarative sentence is
2. Interrogative sentence asks a question and is formed by kept)
means of inversion. There are following types of questions: You really want to go now tonight? - Yes, nothing could make
1) general (an auxiliary or modal verb is placed at the me stay.
beginning of the sentence) You are familiar with the town? - I spent winter here many
Do you like this part of the country? years ago.
Are you coming tonight?
Have you helped your mother through all these years? 6) rhetorical (no answer is needed)
Is that girl a friend of yours? Can any one say what truth is? (No one can say what it is.)
What else could I do? (I could do nothing.)
2) special (pronominal) – W- and How-questions Who would have thought to meet you here? (Nobody
Where are you from? would.)
What are you doing there?
Which story did you like best? 3. Imperative sentence serves to induce a person to do
How can I get to your place? something, so it expresses an advice, command, directions,
request or invitation.
3) alternative (a choice is implied) Stand up! Sit down. Open your textbooks. Be quick! Stop
Will you go to the opera or to the concert tonight? talking!
Do you prefer Viber or Telegram? Take my packet to the second floor.

4. Exclamatory sentence expresses some kind of emotion