BREAKING SYSTEMS AND SAFETY

UNIT-III

Presented By:
Dr. B. Joga Rao
Assoc. Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engg.
Lecture Details: GIET(A)
Sub: Modern Vehicle Technology
Breaking systems and safety
IV B.Tech. I Sem.- Mech, 2024-25.
BREAKING SYSTEMS
• Brakes are one of the most critical components of a car.
• We should preach to the choir when we say driving a car without brakes invites certain death.
• With just the press of a pedal or the pulling of a lever, the car comes to a halt.
History Of Brakes
• It’s been over a hundred years since the first brakes made a debut.
• Made of wood and controlled by a lever, these brakes were used to slow down carriages or cars with
steel-rimmed wheels.
• That was a long time ago, though. And with cars back then reaching maximum speeds of 30-35
km/hr, these brakes were good.
• As technology advanced and cars kept on getting faster, new brakes were also developed to keep up
with the speed of the car and the ever-increasing demand for cars on road.
• This led to multiple different types of brakes, from simple drum brakes to highly advanced
automatic brakes.
Principle of Breaking Systems
• The principle used by every brake is friction. Opposing any force is
something friction does, but we increase it using brakes.
• Friction converts kinetic energy into heat energy, thus effectively
bringing the car to a stop.
• Every time of brake will use friction to stop the car, one way or another.
• Brakes introduce a stationary element and put it in contact with a moving
one, thus causing friction.
• Even though it’s the same principle, there are multiple brakes suitable for
different scenarios. Onto the types of brakes!
 Types Of Automotive
Brakes
Types Of Automotive Brakes
Hydraulic brakes Anti-lock brakes Mechanical brakes Regenerative brakes

Drum brakes Parking brake

Disc brakes
 HYDRAULIC BRAKES
• The primary braking system used in most modern vehicles is the hydraulic braking system.
• Hydraulic braking systems use brake fluid to move parts like brake pads or shoes that enable
your car to slow down.
• The way hydraulic brakes work is pretty straightforward: brake fluid pressure is sent through the
master cylinder whenever you engage the brake pedal, creating hydraulic pressure.
• This pressure pushes the brake fluid through the brake lines and down to each wheel. Once at the
wheels, the brake fluid pushes friction material against either a rotor or brake drum, depending
on the type of brake on the wheel.
• This friction material takes the kinetic energy of the spinning wheel and turns it into heat energy,
as the friction force slows down the wheel!
• You will typically find two types of hydraulic brakes on your vehicle’s wheels: disc brakes or
drum brakes.
 Drum Brakes
• One of the oldest mechanical brakes, drum brakes, have been around for a while. Even though they
are less technologically advanced than other brakes on the list, they are still used in cars.
History
• The first drum brakes were present in a car made by Maybach in 1900, while the working principle
was patented later in 1902 by Louis Renault. Asbestos was used in the first patented drum brake for
heat dissipation, while levers, rods and cables were sued to operate the brake mechanically. They
had a lot of issues but were still used due to being the most superior option back then.
• When Jaguar introduced three cars at Le Mans equipped with disc brakes, drum brakes were in
trouble. The three cars won Le Mans due to superior braking capabilities, which started the switch
from drum brakes to disc brakes in passenger cars.
• Even though newer brakes came and made drum brakes almost obsolete it still finds uses in hand
brakes as a disc brake cannot hold a parked car in position.
Construction Drum Brakes
 Construction Drum Brakes
The construction of mechanical drum brakes will be covered in parts as there are a lot of components, and its better to tackle it in
this way.
Back Plate
• It’s the base of the other components and increases the rigidity of everything else. It is made of strong material as it must withstand
the punishment from road debris. As the name suggests, its a place in the back of the system.
Brake Drum
• Made of cast iron as it is more heat resistant, the main job of the drum brake is to act as the mediator between the brake lining and the
wheels. It rotates with the wheel. It is situated on the wheel hub and acts as the buffer between the brake and the wheel.
Wheel Cylinder
• One is present in every brake; it is the hydraulic piston controlling the movement of brake shoes. It is located on the top of the brake
assembly.
Brake Shoe
• Brake shoes are the reason that a car can stop. Controlled by the wheel cylinder, these brake shoes are on the sides of the brake
assembly.
Friction Lining
• These friction linings are on top of the brake shoe. They are made up of material that has high heat resistance, high resistance to wear
and tear and a high coefficient of friction .
 Working
• When the brake is applied by the user, hydraulic fluid is pushed into the brake
line, and this fluid travels to the wheel cylinder.
• The wheel cylinder has two pistons that push outwards when the brake fluid enters the
cylinder. This, in turn, moves the brake show outwards and towards the brake drum.
• The brake shoe’s outer side has friction linings that then rub against the brake drum. The
friction causes the wheel to slow down as the brake drum is directly attached to the wheel.
• Due to friction, kinetic energy is converted into heat energy and this causes the car to come
to a halt.
• That’s it for the working of the drum brake. As we said earlier, it might not be high-tech
gear, but it still gets the job done.
• Now it is only limited to handbrakes, but there is a reason as to why, which we will discuss
in the pros and cons section, which coincidently happens to be right below this.
 Advantages
• They are easier to maintain.
Remember the rule of thumb. The fewer the number of working parts, the easier it is to maintain
something. Being an old piece of technology, drum brakes have the advantage of being easy to
maintain. With the right tools, it’s possible to do some part of replacing yourself, but just to be safe,
leave the work to the experts!
• They are cheap.
Like being easier to maintain, having fewer parts and using basic physics without expanding on
anything means the production and manufacturing costs are really low, making it easier to mass-
produce.
• Compatibility
Drum brakes are compatible with other brakes, like a disc brakes. It doesn’t mean you can use
both brakes on the same wheel. Rather use one on the front wheels and the other on the rear. A normal
combination is a disc brake on the front wheels and a Drum brake on the rear wheels.
 Disadvantages
• It can collect unwanted materials.
Drum brakes have an enclosed design. This means they are almost like a tight
container, and it is not easy to escape. It is possible, however, to enter it. Water, dirt, brake
gunk and many other things can enter the Drum brake and stay there as being enclosed, and
it won’t be able to come out of it.
• Heat Build
Another issue with the enclosed design, it’s not easy for air to flow smoothly into the
assembly. This causes heat to build up quickly, which results in our next issue.
• Easy Wear and Tear
The wear and tear issue is caused by the failure to dissipate heat effectively. This is not
the sole reason, though. The brake lining faces a lot of friction which causes it to start
wearing fast
 Disc Brakes
• These are brake types that use callipers to slow down a car with friction. Disc
brakes are famous and useful and are seen on almost every vehicle nowadays.
History Of Disc Brakes
• The development of disc brakes started with in the 1890s. However, due to lack
of good metals that could be used, Frederick Willian Lanchester patented a
calliper type disc brake in 1902 that used copper.
• The roads at that time, however, didn’t allow copper to be used as copper is a
soft metal would wear down really quickly. This made the system useless.
• After multiple people working on various types of the first patented system, the
breakthrough came in 1953.
Disc Brakes
 Construction
Rotor
The rotor is the part that is attached directly to the wheel. This rotor rotates with the wheel hence the name. The rotor acts as the
connection between the wheel and the brakes.
Pads
Mounted on the brake system, the pads act as friction lining. They are close to the rotor facing outwards and made of durable
material with a high friction coefficient.
Calliper
The entire housing of the brake system is called the calliper. It is mounted on the axle and has no direct contact with the rotor
until the brake is applied, allowing full and easy movement of the wheels.
Pistons
Inside the calliper’s piston, also called the pot, is the direct connection to the calliper and the brake fluid.
Master Cylinder
The main force behind the braking system. It is placed quite far from the braking system and uses tubes to push hydraulic fluids
towards the calliper.
The construction doesn’t end here, as there is important reasoning for where the brake callipers are placed. You might have seen
the callipers yourself. They are usually red and are visible on the wheels. Sometimes they are close to the front and sometimes to the
back.
 Position Of Brake Calipers
Imagine a wheel with 4 different locations. The side towards the car will be called the interior, the top will be called the top,
and the bottom will be the bottom. While the front tire’s remaining side will be called outer, and the rear tires remaining side will
be called rear. Now let’s discuss the positioning.
Weight Distribution
In a car built for high performance, weight distribution is a necessary attribute. The perfect weight distribution means more
control over the car at high speeds. To achieve this, the calipers need to be towards the car. This makes the car have a good
Moment Of Inertia. A good MOI means the car has a good balance point, and it won’t be easy for the car to roll over.
Suspension
The size of the suspension also affects the location of the calipers. Something like a double-wishbone suspension will make
it impossible to place the caliper at the top or bottom part of the wheels. This leaves only two positions empty, which will be
decided depending on the type of car and which position will help it more.
Aerodynamics
Brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy into heat energy. This causes the brakes to overheat. The higher the temperature
of a machine, the easier it can get worn down. Thus brakes need a flow of air to keep them cool. Some cars have vents in the front
to push the air towards the tires. In such a case, the calipers will be placed in front of the wheels to allow for the air to push into
them directly.
 Position Of Brake Calipers
The Purpose Of The Vehicle
We talked about it a bit in the weight distribution part. The positioning also depends on what the sue for the car is.
Something like an offroader will have the caliper placed on top to prevent mud and water from entering the slotted discs. A
sports car made for the tracks will have them towards the interior to provide a better MOI. With a car for day-to-day driving, it
will be placed in front of the tire to reduce the cost of routing the air from the front towards the back, thus cutting costs.
Cosmetic
Calipers can also be placed to appease the eye. Some cars may already have an MOI good enough to manage the calipers
to be in any position. In such a case, the position which makes the car look better will be selected. Most calipers that are
positioned to look good are placed towards the interior of the car anyways, thus giving both a good look and helping with the
Moment Of Inertia.
Cost Cutting
Positioning can also help cut costs. A brake calipers towards the interior of the car is good for MOI but is more costly as it
requires routing of the air from the front of the car towards the back, which increases complexity and thus causes more money
to be spent on it. This is not ideal for cars that are more budget-friendly. The good thing is that these budget-friendly cars are not
expected to be high-performing cars anyways, which allows them to use the calipers in front, sacrificing a boost in MOI.
 Working
• When the brake pedal is pressed down, the working of a disc brake begins.
• It starts with the pressure from pressing the brake to the master cylinder.
• The master cylinder then converts this force into hydraulic force by moving
fluid along the tubes present in the cylinder.
• This fluid reaches the pistons and pushes them along.
• This causes the piston and the entire caliper assembly to move inward.
• This inward movement causes the entire assembly to clamp down on the rotor,
which is directly attached to the wheel axle, thus rotating along with the wheel.
• Stopping the rotor thus means stopping the wheels, thus bringing the car to a
halt.
 Advantages of Disc Brakes
• More Power
Disc brakes have a really high stopping power compared to something like a drum brake which helps in slowing
down a high-speed car or helping a car stop as fast as possible.
• No Heat
Disc brakes are made in such a way that they get constant airflow. Due to being slotted and not a closed structure
like drum brakes, they dissipate heat fairly easily and thus don’t overheat. The worst case scenario of overheating
can cause tire blowouts which can mortally injure.
• No Water Retention
Due to not being an enclosed chamber, the disc brake doesn’t store water in them, and it flows right off. This is
completely different from a drum brake which can hold water and cause really fast wear and tear.
• Safer During Hard Braking
Unlike drum brakes that can lock up during hard braking, disc brakes don’t lock up. Hard braking is when a lot of
force is applied on the brake pedal to make the vehicle stop as fast as possible. This can cause the drum brake to
lock up, which in turn removes any control from the driver’s hand, making the car skid. Disc brakes don’t suffer
from this. However, both brakes use an Anti-Lock Brake System to prevent this.
 Disadvantages
• Money
Disc brakes cost much more than a drum brake would. This is due to being more
advanced and more complex.
• Tough Maintenance
Being a complex piece of hardware disc brake requires more work to maintain and more
skill to repair. This, in turn, means they are costly to get repaired. The complexity comes
from the number of parts involved, which increases the amount of work needed to fix the
system.
• Air Troubles
If any amount of air enters the master cylinder or the tubes with the hydraulic fluid, the
brake will instantly fail. This is a serious issue and thus needs utmost care during
activities like bleeding the brake fluid and other maintenance.
 What are brake calipers and what do they do?
• Brake calipers are a crucial part of making your car stop when you hit the brakes.
• In a disc-braking system, the car's wheels are attached to metal discs, or rotors, that spin along
with the wheels. The job of the caliper is to slow the car's wheels by creating friction with the
rotors.
• The brake caliper fits over the rotor like a clamp. Inside each caliper is a pair of metal plates
bonded with friction material, these are called brake pads. The outboard brake pads are on the
outside of the rotors (toward the curb) and the inboard brake pads on the inside (toward the
vehicle). When you step on the brake, brake fluid from the master cylinder creates hydraulic
pressure on one or more pistons in the brake caliper, forcing the pads against the rotor. The
brake pads have high-friction surfaces and serve to slow the rotor down or even bring it to a
complete halt. When the rotor slows or stops, so does the wheel, because they're attached to
one another.
What are brake calipers and what do they do?
Fixed Disc Brakes
• There is only one major difference between floating disc brakes and fixed disc brakes. In fixed disc
brakes, the brake caliper doesn’t move. Instead, the side of the caliper which should move has pistons.
A fixed disc brake has four disc brakes, unlike a floating disc brake with one. This gives it advantages
over the floating type, which we will discuss briefly.
Floating VS Fixed
• The major difference is, as we have already discussed, the number of pistons. Having more pistons and
the structure staying ‘fixed’ gives the fixed disc brakes more stability over floating. This also makes it
so that the fixed disc brake effect is evenly applied to the entire rotor, unlike floating disc brakes.
• This doesn’t make floating disc brakes any bad, either. Floating disc brakes are still ideal for day-to-
day usage as it gets the job done and cost less than fixed disc brakes. Fixed disc brakes are only useful
in high-performance cars where having the car cost more due to the fixed disc braking system doesn’t
matter.
What is the difference between the fist caliper and
the floating caliper?
 Anti-Lock Braking System
• Anti-lock braking system or ABS is a vital safety feature that has become a common feature in
all modern cars. ABS is often advertised as a system that helps mitigate accidents to a large extend
What is an Anti-Lock Braking System?
• As the name suggests, ABS prevents the wheels from locking when you apply the brakes. It lets you
control or ‘steer’ the vehicle while the brakes remain applied, and also reduces the braking distance.
What is the need for ABS?
• In standard braking (without ABS), when you press the brake pedal, the brake pads press tightly
against the wheels’ discs to instantaneously stop the wheels’ rotation, causing them to lock up,
regardless of what speed the vehicle is on.
• When the wheels stop rotating, they can’t be steered, which means the driver loses all control over
the wheels, and now the vehicle skids as a result of the momentum it is in. This can cause fatal
accidents more often than not.
Anti-Lock Braking System
Anti-Lock Braking System
Anti-Lock Braking System
 Anti-Lock Braking System
• The main components of the ABS are speed sensors, valves, pump, and
ECU.
• Speed sensors: These sensors monitor the speed of the wheels.
• Valves: Valves in the brake line allow, block and release pressure on the
brakes.
• Pumps: Pumps are filled with hydraulic fluid that applies pressure to the
brake drums or calipers when brakes are applied.
• ECU: The electronic control unit (ECU) reacts to the signals from the speed
sensors.
 Anti-Lock Braking System
• With ABS, as you apply the brakes, the speed sensors track the decreasing rotation of the wheels.
When the brakes are about to stop rotation, they send a signal to the electric control unit (ECU).
The ECU partially releases the brake pads from the wheels through valves and pumps, allowing
the wheel to continue rotating. With ABS, the wheels can continue rotating, allowing you to
maintain control over the car in a heavy braking situation.
• Without ABS, the wheels would stop or lock up immediately after the brakes are applied and the
vehicle would skid due to the translational velocity of the wheels. In this case, due to skidding the
vehicle would cover a relatively long distance and you won’t be able to control the vehicle since
you can’t steer the locked wheels. Moreover, if the left and right wheels of the vehicle are on
different traction surfaces, the application of brakes produces different frictional forces on the
wheels. This causes the vehicle to spin uncontrollably.
 Anti-Lock Braking System
Advantages of Anti-Lock Braking System or ABS
• An anti-lock braking system reduces the braking distance as the appropriate pressure is
applied to stop the car.
• Since wheels don’t lock up while stopping the vehicle, it avoids uneven tire wear.
• ABS shares some basic infrastructure with the Traction Control System (TCS), which makes
it easier to install the traction control system on cars in factories.
• Reduce wearing of brake pads and brake discs.
• In case of heavy braking, you can steer the car around obstacles.
Disadvantages of Anti-Lock Braking System or ABS
• Variable braking distances due to different types of surfaces
• The intricate arrangement of ECU and sensors increases the complexity
• Expensive to maintain
 Anti-Lock Braking System
Classification of Anti-Lock Braking System
Depending upon the number of speed sensors and valves, the anti-lock braking system
is segregated into three types.

Type of ABS Details

Four channel-four sensor ABS Each wheel has a separate valve and a sensor

Separate valves for front wheels. A single valve

Three channel-four sensor ABS
is for both the rear wheels.

A valve and a sensor in each front wheel.

Three channel- three sensor ABS
A valve and a sensor for rear wheels.
 PARKING BRAKE
• The parking brake, also known as a hand brake or emergency brake, is
independent from your hydraulic braking system. It is still sometimes referred to
as an emergency brake because its original purpose was to act as a failsafe if the
main brakes broke down. Nowadays, it’s mostly just used for safe parking.
• The parking brake typically works by mechanically locking your rear wheels.
When you pull the hand brake or push the parking brake button, the rear brake
pads or shoes press against the rear rotor or drum, preventing it from moving. Not
only does the parking brake ensure that your car doesn’t roll away on an incline,
but it also gives your transmission a break by reducing strain on your parking
pawl. But to get this benefit, you have to make sure you’re using your parking
brake correctly
PARKING BRAKE
 PARKING BRAKE
• If you drive a manual transmission, using your parking brake to keep your car from
rolling is not optional. But if you drive an automatic, you might think your parking
brake is only for extreme circumstances, like a steep incline or a slick driveway,
hence the alternative name “emergency brake.”
WHAT IS A PARKING BRAKE?
• Your parking brake is either a handle or a button that engages a secondary braking
system. This system operates independently from your transmission’s braking
system. Originally, this secondary braking mechanism was intended to stop a vehicle
when the main brake system failed. Today, it is primarily used to keep a vehicle in
place when parked.
 PARKING BRAKE
HOW DOES A PARKING BRAKE WORK?
When you engage your parking brake, discs inside your rear wheels called parking brake
shoes expand and squeeze against the inner part of the wheel, keeping your tires from
spinning and stopping your car from rolling away.
To use your parking brake properly, consult your owner's manual and follow these four
easy steps.
•Press down completely on your brake pedal.
•Engage your parking brake by either pulling the lever or pressing the ((P)) button.
•Shift your car into “park.”
•Release the brake pedal.
By engaging your e-brake before shifting into “park,” you’re letting the hydraulic brake
system do the work and taking stress off the transmission!
Regenerative brakes
 Regenerative brakes
WHAT IS REGENERATIVE BRAKING AND HOW DOES IT WORK?
• Regenerative braking is a mechanism found on most hybrid and full-electric vehicles. It
captures the kinetic energy from braking and converts it into the electrical power that
charges the vehicle’s high voltage battery. Regenerative braking also slows the car down,
which assists the use of traditional brakes.
• In a conventional braking system, a car slows down due to friction between the brake pads
and rotors. But this system is highly inefficient when it comes to conserving energy. Nearly
all of the kinetic energy propelling your car forward is lost as heat when you apply the
brakes. That’s a lot of wasted energy!
• Regenerative braking solves this problem by recapturing upwards of 70% of the kinetic
energy that would otherwise be lost during braking. The amount of energy recovered
depends on your car model and driving behavior.
 Regenerative brakes
How does regenerative braking provide electricity?
• Regenerative braking turns kinetic energy into electricity by reversing the process that
drives the car forward. In electric cars, the drivetrain is powered by a battery pack that
powers a motor (or motors), creating torque–rotational force–on the wheels. In other
words, electrical energy from the battery becomes mechanical energy that spins the
wheels.
• With regenerative braking, the energy from your spinning wheels is used to reverse the
direction of electricity - from the electric motor(s) to the battery. All you have to do is
remove your foot from the accelerator or, in some cases, press the brake pedal to
activate regenerative braking. The electric motor not only acts as an electric generator,
but it also helps slow your car down because energy is consumed by the wheels as
they rotate the shaft in the electric motor.
 Regenerative brakes
Advantages of regenerative braking
• Brake pads & rotors may last longer
• Extended range possibilities for evs
• Better fuel efficiency for hybrids
Disadvantages of a regenerative braking system
• May be less effective at lower speeds
• Brake pedal may feel different
• Potentially less stopping power