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SEISMIC
ANALYSIS
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9.5.5 Non-linear Static Analysis:
Push-over Method
Due to advancements in computing, seismic analysis of
buildings is moving from simple linear-elastic methods to more
complex non-linear-inelastic techniques. One such method is
non-linear static (push-over) analysis, which helps determine a
structure's inelastic capacity. This results in a non-linear force-
displacement relationship. There are two main approaches: the
traditional method, where loads are applied in a constant
pattern, and the adaptive (modal) method, where the load
distribution changes as the structure deforms, providing a more
accurate analysis, especially for buildings affected by higher
vibration modes.

Traditional push-over procedure evaluates a building’s seismic

capacity by applying increasing lateral loads in a fixed pattern
until the structure collapses. This method creates a capacity
curve showing the relationship between the structure's lateral
force and displacement, helping to identify its inelastic limit
(when it starts to permanently deform) and lateral capacity
(maximum load it can resist).
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Common load patterns used are constant, triangular, and

parabolic, with triangular being a common choice to reflect
realistic force distribution. The analysis helps assess how the
building will respond to seismic forces, but the chosen load pattern
must accurately represent real conditions.
The push-over method offers valuable insights into various
structural behaviors that can't be captured by elastic static or
dynamic analyses. Some key benefits include:
1 Identifying critical areas where deformation is expected
to be highest, which require more detailed design.
2 It helps estimate inter-story drifts, which reflect
potential strength or stiffness issues.
3 It evaluates the effects of strength deterioration of
individual components like columns and beams, and
ductility demands on elements that need to deform
inelastically.
4 The method also checks the adequacy of the load path, ensuring
that both structural and non-structural elements properly
contribute to lateral load distribution.
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However, the method has significant limitations:

1 It assumes a separation between structural capacity and earthquake demand, which

doesn’t reflect the complex, load-path-dependent nature of non-linear structural behavior.
2 The method oversimplifies by only using base shear and top-level displacement, which
doesn't capture the full range of structural responses.
3 It doesn’t account for the progressive changes in modal properties as the structure
undergoes cyclic non-linear yielding, leading to inaccurate estimates of shear distribution.

4 It can lead to inaccurate estimates of inter-story drifts, especially if higher vibration modes
are important, as shown by discrepancies in the estimation with common load patterns like
triangular or uniform distributions.
 The multimode load pattern push-over procedure is a
methodology to determine the structure response by
combination of the vibration modes using different participation
factors is presented in Section 9.5.4 for elastic analysis combines
the effects of different vibration modes using participation
factors to better assess a structure’s response. By applying this
approach, the push-over values for each vibration mode are
combined, considering only the most significant modes. This
method uses load patterns based on these modes, derived from
a linear elastic analysis. However, it ignores changes in the
structure's vibration properties and the redistribution of forces
due to structural yielding.
The modal push-over is developed for cases when the
influence of high vibration modes is significant. The principal
objective of this procedure is to develop a push-over analysis
procedure based on the structural dynamic theory, which retains
the conceptual simplicity and computational attractiveness of
current procedures with invariant force distribution, but provides
superior accuracy in estimating seismic demands on buildings
(Chopra and Goel, 2001, 2002).
This method combines the results from each mode using the
square-root-of-sum-of-squares (SRSS) technique. It is particularly
useful when higher vibration modes significantly influence the
structure’s response. Studies have shown that this approach
provides better accuracy compared to standard FEMA force
distributions, which tend to underestimate story drift demands.
For low to mid-rise buildings, including the first and second
modes is usually sufficient, while taller buildings may require the
Adaptive push-over procedure
considers the changing of both
characteristics which determine the
structural response, the load
pattern and the structural rigidity.
When plastic hinges form in the
structure, constant distribution of
lateral forces cannot be any longer
used. In this procedure, the
dynamic analysis is transformed
into a static analysis, which is
repeated many times as soon as
the stiffness changes due to the
formation of new plastic hinges
(Fig. 9.29a).
9.5.6 Non-linear dynamic earthquake
Non-linear dynamic earthquake analysis is a powerful tool

Analysis
for the study of the structural seismic response. A set of ground
motion records or artificially generated time-history
representations can give an accurate evaluation of the anticipated
seismic performance of structures (Mwafy and Elnashai, 2001).
Also, it is a highly accurate method for assessing how structures
respond to seismic events. By using real or simulated ground
motion records, it provides a detailed evaluation of a structure's
seismic performance. However, the complexity and size of
structures that can be analyzed are limited by current computer
hardware and software capabilities. As of now, there is no widely
available non-linear analysis software that can effectively handle
large-scale structures. There are three barriers preventing the
engineer from the application of non-linear dynamic earthquake
analysis:
- It is too complex to be solved by means of personal computers,
currently used in
structural practice.
- The results are too sensitive to the properties of structural
material non-linearities.
- The analysis results significantly vary in function of the
earthquake records used.
 Time-history representation of ground motions. The ground motions
are very difficult to predict in terms of time of occurrence, intensity and
duration. The definition of spatial characteristics, like acceleration velocity
and displacement in three directions, together with the temporal ones, like
period and duration, is also considerably difficult. There are two main
methods to represent them:

Recorded Artificially
Digitized Generated Time-
: Uses actualTime-History
earthquake records from Combines History of
portions real
data banks based on source type, earthquake records to create diverse
distance, and soil conditions. However, seismic scenarios. While not
finding enough suitable records is
challenging, and variations in ground perfectly realistic, this method
motion characteristics can lead to allows for simulating various
uncertainty in the structural response. earthquake conditions, making it
more flexible for structural design.

Overall, artificially generated time-history is promising for structural design

as it overcomes the limitations of recorded data.
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Hysteretic models Incremental dynamic Time history

for components analysis (IDA) analysis
behavior (is a parametric analysis
The method is based on the
method which allows obtaining
which must include the direct numerical integration of
the capacity curve from a
strength and stiffness dynamic analysis. This
the motion differential
deterioration. Results of equations. In this aim, different
procedure offers to investigate,
algorithms can be adopted,
seismic evaluation of by scaling the induced base
where the elasto-plastic
various frames acceleration, a continuous
deformation of the structure
picture of the structural
demonstrate that the must be considered. The
behavior from elastic to yield
strength deterioration range and eventually to
analysis of the structure (Fig.
becomes a dominant 9.32a) may be performed by
collapse. The method allows
using, as base excitation, an
factor, when the response tracing also the sequence of
actual or artificially generated
of the structure yielding and failure in the
ground motion, in the form of
structural members.
approaches the limit state acceleration time-history (Fig.
of collapse. The q-factor is defined as the 9.32b)
ratio between the ground
acceleration leading to collapse
and the one corresponding to
the first plastic hinge formed in
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9.5.7 Estimation of Progress in

Seismic Analysis
The inelastic dynamic response is highly
sensitive to the characteristics of input
motions, so selecting appropriate
acceleration time histories is crucial.
Additionally, accurately representing the
cyclic load-deformation behavior of key
structural elements, such as foundations,
columns, and beams, requires considerable
computational effort. These factors raise
concerns about the feasibility of using such
methods in everyday design practice.
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