Programming Fundamentals

Pointers
Dr. Ashfaq Hussain Farooqi
Introduction
● Pointers

○ Powerful, but difficult to master

○ Simulate pass-by-reference

○ Close relationship with arrays and strings

2
Pointer Variable Declarations
and Initialization
● Pointer variables
○ Contain memory addresses as values
○ Normally, variable contains specific value (direct reference)
○ Pointers contain address of variable that has specific value (indirect reference)

● Indirection count
○ Referencing value through pointer 7

● Pointer declarations countPtr count

○ * indicates variable is pointer 7
int *myPtr;
declares pointer to int, pointer of type int *

○ Multiple pointers require multiple asterisks

int *myPtr1, *myPtr2; 3
Pointer Variable Declarations
and Initialization
● Can declare pointers to any data type
● Pointer initialization

○ Initialized to 0, NULL, or address

■ 0 or NULL points to nothing

4
Pointer Operators
● & (address operator)
○ Returns memory address of its operand
○ Example
int y = 5;
int *yPtr;
yPtr = &y; // yPtr gets address of y
○ yPtr “points to” y

y yptr y
5 500000 600000 600000 5
yPtr

address of y
is value of
yptr
5
Pointer Operators
● * (indirection/dereferencing operator)

○ Returns synonym for object its pointer operand points to

○ *yPtr returns y (because yPtr points to y).

*yptr = 9; // assigns 9 to y

● * and & are inverses of each other

6
 7
1 // Fig. 5.4: fig05_04.cpp Outline
2 // Using the & and * operators.
3 #include <iostream>
4 fig05_04.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 2)
6 using std::endl;
7
8 int main()
9 {
10 int a; // a is an integer
11 int *aPtr; // aPtr is a pointer to an integer
12
13 a = 7;
14 aPtr = &a; // aPtr assigned address of a
15
16 cout << "The address of a is " << &a
17 << "\nThe value of aPtr is " << aPtr;
18
19 cout << "\n\nThe value of a is " << a
20 << "\nThe value of *aPtr is " << *aPtr; * and & are inverses
21
of each other
22 cout << "\n\nShowing that * and & are inverses of "
23 << "each other.\n&*aPtr = " << &*aPtr
24 << "\n*&aPtr = " << *&aPtr << endl;
25

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 8
26 return 0; // indicates successful termination Outline
27
28 } // end main
fig05_04.cpp
The address of a is 0012FED4
(2 of 2)
The value of aPtr is 0012FED4

The value of a is 7 fig05_04.cpp

The value of *aPtr is 7 output (1 of 1)

Showing that * and & are inverses of each other.

&*aPtr = 0012FED4
*&aPtr = 0012FED4
* and & are inverses; same
result when both applied to
aPtr

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Calling Functions by Reference
● 3 ways to pass arguments to function

○ Pass-by-value

○ Pass-by-reference with reference arguments

○ Pass-by-reference with pointer arguments

● return can return one value from function
● Arguments passed to function using reference arguments

○ Modify original values of arguments

○ More than one value “returned”

9
Calling Functions by Reference
● Pass-by-reference with pointer arguments

○ Simulate pass-by-reference

■ Use pointers and indirection operator

○ Pass address of argument using & operator

○ Arrays not passed with & because array name already pointer

○ * operator used as alias/nickname for variable inside of function

10
 11
1 // Fig. 5.6: fig05_06.cpp Outline
2 // Cube a variable using pass-by-value.
3 #include <iostream>
4 fig05_06.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 2)
6 using std::endl;
7
8 int cubeByValue( int ); // prototype
9
10 int main()
11 {
12 int number = 5;
13
14 cout << "The original value of number is " Pass number
<< number;by value; result
15 returned by
16 // pass number by value to cubeByValue cubeByValue
17 number = cubeByValue( number );
18
19 cout << "\nThe new value of number is " << number << endl;
20
21 return 0; // indicates successful termination
22
23 } // end main
24

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 12
25 // calculate and return cube of integer argument Outline
26 int cubeByValue( int n )
27 {
28
cubeByValue receives
return n * n * n; // cube local variable n and return result
parameter passed-by-value fig05_06.cpp
29
(2 of 2)
30 } // end function cubeByValue

The original value of number is 5 Cubes and returns fig05_06.cpp

The new value of number is 125 local variable n output (1 of 1)

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 13
1 // Fig. 5.7: fig05_07.cpp Outline
2 // Cube a variable using pass-by-reference
3 // with a pointer argument.
4 #include <iostream> fig05_07.cpp
5
Prototype indicates parameter (1 of 2)
6 using std::cout;
is pointer to int
7 using std::endl;
8
9 void cubeByReference( int * ); // prototype
10
11 int main()
12 {
13 int number = 5;
14
15 cout << "The original value of number is " << number;Apply address operator & to
16 pass address of number to
17 // pass address of number to cubeByReference cubeByReference
18 cubeByReference( &number );
19
20 cout << "\nThe new value of number is " << number << endl;
21
22 return 0; // indicates successful termination
23 cubeByReference
24 } // end main modified variable
25 number

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 14
26 // calculate cube of *nPtr; modifies variable number in main Outline
27 void cubeByReference( int *nPtr )
28 {
29 *nPtr = *nPtr * *nPtr * *nPtr; // cube *nPtr fig05_07.cpp
cubeByReference
30
receives address of int (2 of 2)
31 } // end function cubeByReference
variable,
i.e., pointer to an int fig05_07.cpp
The original value of number is 5
The new value of number is 125 output (1 of 1)
Modify and access int
variable using indirection
operator *

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Using const with Pointers
● const qualifier
○ Value of variable should not be modified
○ const used when function does not need to change a variable
● Principle of least privilege
○ Award function enough access to accomplish task, but no more
● Four ways to pass pointer to function
○ Nonconstant pointer to nonconstant data
■ Highest amount of access
○ Nonconstant pointer to constant data
○ Constant pointer to nonconstant data
○ Constant pointer to constant data
■ Least amount of access

15
 16
1 // Fig. 5.10: fig05_10.cpp Outline
2 // Converting lowercase letters to uppercase letters
3 // using a non-constant pointer to non-constant data.
4 #include <iostream> fig05_10.cpp
5
(1 of 2)
6 using std::cout;
7 using std::endl;
Parameter is nonconstant
8
9 #include <cctype> // prototypes for islower and toupper pointer to nonconstant data
10
11 void convertToUppercase( char * );
12
13 int main()
14 {
15 char phrase[] = "characters and $32.98"; convertToUppercase
16 modifies variable phrase
17 cout << "The phrase before conversion is: " << phrase;
18 convertToUppercase( phrase );
19 cout << "\nThe phrase after conversion is: "
20 << phrase << endl;
21
22 return 0; // indicates successful termination
23
24 } // end main
25

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 17
26 // convert string to uppercase letters Outline
27 void convertToUppercase( char *sPtr )
28 {
29 while ( *sPtr != '\0' ) { // current character is not '\0' fig05_10.cpp
30 Parameter sPtr nonconstant
(2 of 2)
31 if ( islower( *sPtr ) ) // if character pointer
is to nonconstant data
lowercase,
32 *sPtr = toupper( *sPtr ); // convert to uppercase
33 fig05_10.cpp
Function islower returns
34 ++sPtr; // move sPtr to next character in string output (1 of 1)
true if character is
35
lowercase
36 } // end while
37 Function toupper returns
38 } // end function convertToUppercase
When operatoruppercase
corresponding ++ applied to
character
pointer if original
that points tocharacter
array,
The phrase before conversion is: characters and $32.98
The phrase
lowercase;
after conversion is:memory
CHARACTERS
otherwise
addressANDstored in
$32.98
toupper
pointer returnstooriginal
modified point to
(uppercase)
next elementcharacter
of array.

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 18
1 // Fig. 5.11: fig05_11.cpp Outline
2 // Printing a string one character at a time using
3 // a non-constant pointer to constant data.
4 #include <iostream> fig05_11.cpp
5
Parameter is nonconstant (1 of 2)
6 using std::cout;
pointer to constant data.
7 using std::endl;
8
9 void printCharacters( const char * );
10
11 int main()
12 {
13 Pass pointer
char phrase[] = "print characters of a string"; phrase to
14 function
15 cout << "The string is:\n"; printCharacters.
16 printCharacters( phrase );
17 cout << endl;
18
19 return 0; // indicates successful termination
20
21 } // end main
22

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 19
23 // sPtr cannot modify the character to which it points, Outline
24 // i.e., sPtr is a "read-only" pointer
25 void printCharacters( const char *sPtr )
26 { fig05_11.cpp
27 for ( ; *sPtr != '\0'; sPtr++ ) // no initialization
sPtr is nonconstant pointer (2 of 2)
28 cout << *sPtr;
29 to constant data; cannot
30 } // end function printCharacters modify character to which fig05_11.cpp
sPtr points. output (1 of 1)
The string is: Increment sPtr to point to
print characters of a string next character.

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 20
1 // Fig. 5.12: fig05_12.cpp Outline
2 // Attempting to modify data through a
3 // non-constant pointer to constant data.
4 fig05_12.cpp
5 void f( const int * ); // prototype
(1 of 1)
6
7 int main()
8 fig05_12.cpp
{ Parameter is nonconstant
9 int y; output (1 of 1)
pointer to constant data.
10
11 f( &y ); // f attempts illegal modification
12
13 return 0; // indicates successful termination
14
Pass address of int variable
15 } // end main y to attempt illegal
16 modification.
17 // xPtr cannot modify the value of the variable
18 // to which it points Attempt to modify const
19 void f( const int *xPtr ) object pointed to by xPtr.
20 {
21 *xPtr = 100; // error: cannot modify a const object
22
23 } // end function f Error produced when
attempting to compile.
d:\cpphtp4_examples\ch05\Fig05_12.cpp(21) : error C2166:
l-value specifies const object

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Using const with Pointers
● const pointers

○ Always point to same memory location

○ Default for array name

○ Must be initialized when declared

21
 22
1 // Fig. 5.13: fig05_13.cpp Outline
2 // Attempting to modify a constant pointer to
3 // non-constant data.
4 fig05_13.cpp
5 int main()
(1 of 1)
6 {
7 int x, y;
8 fig05_13.cpp
9 // ptr is
ptr is a constant pointer to an integer constant
that can pointer to output (1 of 1)
10 // integer.
be modified through ptr, but ptr always points to the
Can modify x (pointed to by
11 // same memory location.
ptr)
Cannotsince x not
modify constant.
ptr to point
12 int * const ptr = &x;
13 to new address since ptr is
14 *ptr = 7; // allowed: constant.
*ptr is not const
15 ptr = &y; // error: ptr is const; cannot assign new address
16 Line 15 generates compiler
17 return 0; // indicates successful error by attempting to assign
termination
18 new address to constant
19 } // end main pointer.

d:\cpphtp4_examples\ch05\Fig05_13.cpp(15) : error C2166:

l-value specifies const object

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 23
1 // Fig. 5.14: fig05_14.cpp Outline
2 // Attempting to modify a constant pointer to constant data.
3 #include <iostream>
4 fig05_14.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 1)
6 using std::endl;
7
8 int main()
9 {
10 int x = 5, y;
11
12 ptr is constant
// ptr is a constant pointer to a constant integer.pointer to
13 integer constant.
// ptr always points to the same location; the integer
14 // at that location cannot be modified.
15 const int *const ptr = &x;
16 Cannot modify x (pointed to
17 cout << *ptr << endl; by ptr)modify
Cannot since *ptr
ptr to point
18 declared constant.
to new address since ptr is
19 *ptr = 7; // error: *ptr is const; cannot assign new value
constant.
20 ptr = &y; // error: ptr is const; cannot assign new address
21
22 return 0; // indicates successful termination
23
24 } // end main

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 24
d:\cpphtp4_examples\ch05\Fig05_14.cpp(19) : error C2166:
l-value specifies const object
Outline
d:\cpphtp4_examples\ch05\Fig05_14.cpp(20) : error C2166:
l-value specifies const object
Line 19 generates compiler fig05_14.cpp
error by attempting to modify output (1 of 1)
Line 20 generates
constant object. compiler
error by attempting to assign
new address to constant
pointer.

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Bubble Sort Using Pass-by-
Reference
● Implement bubbleSort using pointers

○ Want function swap to access array elements

■ Individual array elements: scalars

● Passed by value by default

■ Pass by reference using address operator &

25
 26
1 // Fig. 5.15: fig05_15.cpp Outline
2 // This program puts values into an array, sorts the values into
3 // ascending order, and prints the resulting array.
4 #include <iostream> fig05_15.cpp
5
(1 of 3)
6 using std::cout;
7 using std::endl;
8
9 #include <iomanip>
10
11 using std::setw;
12
13 void bubbleSort( int *, const int ); // prototype
14 void swap( int * const, int * const ); // prototype
15
16 int main()
17 {
18 const int arraySize = 10;
19 int a[ arraySize ] = { 2, 6, 4, 8, 10, 12, 89, 68, 45, 37 };
20
21 cout << "Data items in original order\n";
22
23 for ( int i = 0; i < arraySize; i++ )
24 cout << setw( 4 ) << a[ i ];
25

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 27
26 bubbleSort( a, arraySize ); // sort the array Outline
27
28 cout << "\nData items in ascending order\n";
29 fig05_15.cpp
30 for ( int j = 0; j < arraySize; j++ )
(2 of 3)
31 cout << setw( 4 ) << a[ j ];
32
33 cout << endl;
34
35 return 0; // indicates successful termination
36
37 } // end main
Declare as int
Receives size of array as
*array
38 (rather thanargument; declared const to
int array[])
39 // sort an array of integers using bubble sort algorithm to indicate function
ensure size not modified.
40 void bubbleSort( int *array, const int size ) bubbleSort receives
41 { single-subscripted array.
42 // loop to control passes
43 for ( int pass = 0; pass < size - 1; pass++ )
44
45 // loop to control comparisons during each pass
46 for ( int k = 0; k < size - 1; k++ )
47
48 // swap adjacent elements if they are out of order
49 if ( array[ k ] > array[ k + 1 ] )
50 swap( &array[ k ], &array[ k + 1 ] );

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 28
51 Outline
52 } // end function bubbleSort
53
54 // swap values at memory locations to which fig05_15.cpp
55 // element1Ptr and element2Ptr point
(3 of 3)
56 void swap( int * const element1Ptr, int * const element2Ptr )
57 {
58 int hold = *element1Ptr; fig05_15.cpp
59 *element1Ptr = *element2Ptr; Pass arguments by reference,output (1 of 1)
60 *element2Ptr = hold;
allowing function to swap
61
62 } // end function swap
values at memory locations.

Data items in original order

2 6 4 8 10 12 89 68 45 37
Data items in ascending order
2 4 6 8 10 12 37 45 68 89

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Bubble Sort Using Pass-by-
Reference
● sizeof

○ Unary operator returns size of operand in bytes

○ For arrays, sizeof returns

( size of 1 element ) * ( number of elements )

○ If sizeof( int ) = 4, then

int myArray[10];

cout << sizeof(myArray);

will print 40
29
● sizeof can be used with
 30
1 // Fig. 5.16: fig05_16.cpp Outline
2 // Sizeof operator when used on an array name
3 // returns the number of bytes in the array.
4 #include <iostream> fig05_16.cpp
5
(1 of 2)
6 using std::cout;
7 using std::endl;
8
9 size_t getSize( double * ); // prototype
10
11 int main()
12 {
13 double array[ 20 ]; Operator sizeof applied to
14
an array returns total number
15 cout << "The number of bytes in the array is "
of bytes in array.
16 << sizeof( array );
17
18 cout << "\nThe number of bytes returned by getSize is "
19 << getSize( array ) << endl;
20
21 return 0; // indicates successful termination
22
23 } // end main Function getSize returns
24 number of bytes used to store
array address.

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 31
25 // return size of ptr Outline
26 size_t getSize( double *ptr )
27 {
28 return sizeof( ptr ); fig05_16.cpp
29
(2 of 2)
30 } // end function getSize
Operator sizeof returns
The number of bytes in the array is 160 numberof bytes of pointer. fig05_16.cpp
The number of bytes returned by getSize is 4 output (1 of 1)

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 32
1 // Fig. 5.17: fig05_17.cpp Outline
2 // Demonstrating the sizeof operator.
3 #include <iostream>
4 fig05_17.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 2)
6 using std::endl;
7
8 int main()
9 {
10 char c;
11 short s;
12 int i;
13 long l;
14 float f;
15 double d;
16 long double ld;
17 int array[ 20 ];
18 int *ptr = array;
19

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 33
20 cout << "sizeof c = " << sizeof c Outline
21 << "\tsizeof(char) = " << sizeof( char )
22 << "\nsizeof s = " << sizeof s Operator sizeof can be
23 << "\tsizeof(short) = " << sizeof( short ) used on variable
Operatorname.
sizeof can befig05_17.cpp
24 << "\nsizeof i = " << sizeof i
used on type name. (2 of 2)
25 << "\tsizeof(int) = " << sizeof( int )
26 << "\nsizeof l = " << sizeof l
27 << "\tsizeof(long) = " << sizeof( long )
28 << "\nsizeof f = " << sizeof f
29 << "\tsizeof(float) = " << sizeof( float )
30 << "\nsizeof d = " << sizeof d
31 << "\tsizeof(double) = " << sizeof( double )
32 << "\nsizeof ld = " << sizeof ld
33 << "\tsizeof(long double) = " << sizeof( long double )
34 << "\nsizeof array = " << sizeof array
35 << "\nsizeof ptr = " << sizeof ptr
36 << endl;
37
38 return 0; // indicates successful termination
39
40 } // end main

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 34
sizeof c = 1 sizeof(char) = 1 Outline
sizeof s = 2 sizeof(short) = 2
sizeof i = 4 sizeof(int) = 4
sizeof l = 4 sizeof(long) = 4 fig05_17.cpp
sizeof f = 4 sizeof(float) = 4
output (1 of 1)
sizeof d = 8 sizeof(double) = 8
sizeof ld = 8 sizeof(long double) = 8
sizeof array = 80
sizeof ptr = 4

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Pointer Expressions and Pointer
Arithmetic
● Pointer arithmetic
○ Increment/decrement pointer (++ or --)
○ Add/subtract an integer to/from a pointer( + or += , - or -=)
○ Pointers may be subtracted from each other
○ Pointer arithmetic meaningless unless performed on pointer to array
● 5 element int array on a machine using 4 byte ints
○ vPtr points to first element v[ 0 ], which is at location 3000
vPtr = 3000 location
○ vPtr += 2; sets vPtr to 3008 3000 3004 3008 3012 3016

vPtr points to v[ 2 ]
v[0] v[1] v[2] v[3] v[4]

pointer variable vPtr

35
Pointer Expressions and Pointer
Arithmetic
● Subtracting pointers
○ Returns number of elements between two addresses
vPtr2 = v[ 2 ];
vPtr = v[ 0 ];
vPtr2 - vPtr == 2
● Pointer assignment
○ Pointer can be assigned to another pointer if both of same type
○ If not same type, cast operator must be used
○ Exception: pointer to void (type void *)
■ Generic pointer, represents any type
■ No casting needed to convert pointer to void pointer
■ void pointers cannot be dereferenced

36
Pointer Expressions and Pointer
Arithmetic
● Pointer comparison

○ Use equality and relational operators

○ Comparisons meaningless unless pointers point to members of same array

○ Compare addresses stored in pointers

○ Example: could show that one pointer points to higher numbered element of array
than other pointer

○ Common use to determine whether pointer is 0 (does not point to anything)

37
Relationship Between Pointers
and
● ArraysArrays
and pointers closely related
○ Array name like constant pointer
○ Pointers can do array subscripting operations
● Accessing array elements with pointers
○ Element b[ n ] can be accessed by *( bPtr + n )
■ Called pointer/offset notation
○ Addresses
■ &b[ 3 ] same as bPtr + 3
○ Array name can be treated as pointer
■ b[ 3 ] same as *( b + 3 )
○ Pointers can be subscripted (pointer/subscript notation)
■ bPtr[ 3 ] same as b[ 3 ]

38
 39
1 // Fig. 5.20: fig05_20.cpp Outline
2 // Using subscripting and pointer notations with arrays.
3
4 #include <iostream> fig05_20.cpp
5
(1 of 2)
6 using std::cout;
7 using std::endl;
8
9 int main()
10 {
11 int b[] = { 10, 20, 30, 40 };
12 int *bPtr = b; // set bPtr to point to array b
13
14 // output array b using array subscript notation
15 cout << "Array b printed with:\n"
16 << "Array subscript notation\n"; Using array subscript
17 notation.
18 for ( int i = 0; i < 4; i++ )
19 cout << "b[" << i << "] = " << b[ i ] << '\n';
20
21 // output array b using the array name and
22 // pointer/offset notation
23 cout << "\nPointer/offset notation where "
24 << "the pointer is the array name\n";
25

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 40
26 for ( int offset1 = 0; offset1 < 4; offset1++ ) Outline
27 cout << "*(b + " << offset1 << ") = "
28 << *( b + offset1 ) << '\n';
29 fig05_20.cpp
30 Using array
// output array b using bPtr and array subscript name and
notation
(2 of 2)
31 cout << "\nPointer subscript notation\n";pointer/offset notation.
32
33 for ( int j = 0; j < 4; j++ )
34 cout << "bPtr[" << j << "] = " << bPtr[ j ] << '\n';
35
36 cout << "\nPointer/offset notation\n";
37 Using pointer subscript
38 // output array b using bPtr and pointer/offset notation notation.
39 for ( int offset2 = 0; offset2 < 4; offset2++ )
40 cout << "*(bPtr + " << offset2 << ") = "
41 << *( bPtr + offset2 ) << '\n';
42
43 return 0; // indicates successful termination
44
45 } // end main
Using bPtr and
pointer/offset notation.

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 41
Array b printed with: Outline
Array subscript notation
b[0] = 10 fig05_20.cpp
b[1] = 20
output (1 of 1)
b[2] = 30
b[3] = 40

Pointer/offset notation where the pointer is the array name

*(b + 0) = 10
*(b + 1) = 20
*(b + 2) = 30
*(b + 3) = 40

Pointer subscript notation

bPtr[0] = 10
bPtr[1] = 20
bPtr[2] = 30
bPtr[3] = 40

Pointer/offset notation
*(bPtr + 0) = 10
*(bPtr + 1) = 20
*(bPtr + 2) = 30
*(bPtr + 3) = 40

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 42
1 // Fig. 5.21: fig05_21.cpp Outline
2 // Copying a string using array notation
3 // and pointer notation.
4 #include <iostream> fig05_21.cpp
5
(1 of 2)
6 using std::cout;
7 using std::endl;
8
9 void copy1( char *, const char * ); // prototype
10 void copy2( char *, const char * ); // prototype
11
12 int main()
13 {
14 char string1[ 10 ];
15 char *string2 = "Hello";
16 char string3[ 10 ];
17 char string4[] = "Good Bye";
18
19 copy1( string1, string2 );
20 cout << "string1 = " << string1 << endl;
21
22 copy2( string3, string4 );
23 cout << "string3 = " << string3 << endl;
24
25 return 0; // indicates successful termination

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 43
26 Outline
27 } // end main
28
Use array subscript notation
29 // copy s2 to s1 using array notation fig05_21.cpp
30 void copy1( char *s1, const char *s2 )
to copy string in s2 to
character array s1. (2 of 2)
31 {
32 for ( int i = 0; ( s1[ i ] = s2[ i ] ) != '\0'; i++ )
33 ; // do nothing in body fig05_21.cpp
34 output (1 of 1)
35 } // end function copy1
36
37 Use pointer notation to copy
// copy s2 to s1 using pointer notation
38 string
void copy2( char *s1, const char *s2 ) in s2 to character
39 { array in s1.
40 for ( ; ( *s1 = *s2 ) != '\0'; s1++, s2++ )
41 ; // do nothing in body
42
43 } // end function copy2
Increment both pointers to
string1 = Hello point to next elements in
string3 = Good Bye corresponding arrays.

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Arrays of Pointers
● Arrays can contain pointers
○ Commonly used to store array of strings
char *suit[ 4 ] = {"Hearts", "Diamonds",
"Clubs", "Spades" };
○ Each element of suit points to char * (a string)
○ Array does not store strings, only pointers to strings
suit[0] ’H’ ’e’ ’a’ ’r’ ’t’ ’s’ ’\0’

suit[1] ’D’ ’i’ ’a’ ’m’ ’o’ ’n’ ’d’ ’s’ ’\0’

suit[2] ’C’ ’l’ ’u’ ’b’ ’s’ ’\0’

suit[3] ’S’ ’p’ ’a’ ’d’ ’e’ ’s’ ’\0’

○ suit array has fixed size, but strings can be of any size

44
Case Study: Card Shuffling and
Dealing Simulation
● Card shuffling program
○ Use an array of pointers to strings, to store suit names
○ Use a double scripted array (suit by value)
Ace Two Three Four Five Six Seven Eight Nine Ten Jack Queen King
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Hearts 0
Diamonds 1
Clubs 2
Spades 3

deck[2][12] represents the King of Clubs

Clubs King
○ Place 1-52 into the array to specify the order in which the cards are dealt

45
Case Study: Card Shuffling and
Dealing Simulation
● Pseudocode for shuffling and dealing
simulation Third refinement

Choose slot of deck randomly

First refinement Second
Initialize the suit array
refinement
For each of the 52 cards While chosen slot of deck has been
Initialize the face array
Initialize the deck array
previously chosen
Place card number in randomly selected Choose slot of deck randomly
unoccupied slot of deck
Place card number in chosen slot of
deck
Shuffle the deck

For each of the 52 cards For each slot of the deck array
Deal 52 cards
Find card number in deck array and print If slot contains card number
face and suit of card Print the face and suit of the card

46
 47
1 // Fig. 5.24: fig05_24.cpp Outline
2 // Card shuffling dealing program.
3 #include <iostream>
4 fig05_24.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 4)
6 using std::left;
7 using std::right;
8
9 #include <iomanip>
10
11 using std::setw;
12
13 #include <cstdlib> // prototypes for rand and srand
14 #include <ctime> // prototype for time
15
16 // prototypes
17 void shuffle( int [][ 13 ] );
18 void deal( const int [][ 13 ], const char *[], const char *[] );
19
20 int main() suit array contains pointers
21 {
to char arrays.
22 // initialize suit array
23 const char *suit[ 4 ] =
24 { "Hearts", "Diamonds", "Clubs", "Spades" };
25

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 48
26 // initialize face array Outline
27 const char *face[ 13 ] =
28 { "Ace", "Deuce", "Three", "Four",
29 "Five", "Six", "Seven", "Eight", fig05_24.cpp
30 "Nine", "Ten", "Jack", "Queen", "King" };
(2 of 4)
31
32 // initialize deck array
33 int deck[ 4 ][ 13 ] = { 0 }; face array contains pointers
34
to char arrays.
35 srand( time( 0 ) ); // seed random number generator
36
37 shuffle( deck );
38 deal( deck, face, suit );
39
40 return 0; // indicates successful termination
41
42 } // end main
43

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 49
44 // shuffle cards in deck Outline
45 void shuffle( int wDeck[][ 13 ] )
46 {
47 int row; fig05_24.cpp
48 int column;
(3 of 4)
49
50 // for each of the 52 cards, choose slot of deck randomly
51 for ( int card = 1; card <= 52; card++ ) {
52
53 // choose new random location until unoccupied slot found
Current position is at
54 do {
55 row = rand() % 4;
randomly selected row and
56 column = rand() % 13; column.
57 } while ( wDeck[ row ][ column ] != 0 ); // end do/while
58
59 // place card number in chosen slot of deck
60 wDeck[ row ][ column ] = card;
61
62 } // end for
63
64 } // end function shuffle
65

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 50
66 // deal cards in deck Outline
67 void deal( const int wDeck[][ 13 ], const char *wFace[],
68 const char *wSuit[] )
69 { fig05_24.cpp
70 // for each of the 52 cards
(4 of 4)
71 for ( int card = 1; card <= 52; card++ )
72
73 // loop through rows of wDeck
74 for ( int row = 0; row <= 3; row++ )
75
76 // loop through columns of wDeck for current row
77 for ( int column = 0; column <= 12; column++ )
78 Cause face to be output right
79 //
Cause suit
justified
if slot contains current card, display card
to beofoutput
in field 5 left
80 if ( wDeck[ row ][ column ] == card ) { justified in field of 8
characters.
81 characters.
cout << setw( 5 ) << right << wFace[ column ]
82 << " of " << setw( 8 ) << left
83 << wSuit[ row ]
84 << ( card % 2 == 0 ? '\n' : '\t' );
85
86 } // end if
87
88 } // end function deal

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 51
Nine of Spades Seven of Clubs Outline
Five of Spades Eight of Clubs
Queen of Diamonds Three of Hearts
Jack of Spades Five of Diamonds fig05_24.cpp
Jack of Diamonds Three of Diamonds
output (1 of 1)
Three of Clubs Six of Clubs
Ten of Clubs Nine of Diamonds
Ace of Hearts Queen of Hearts
Seven of Spades Deuce of Spades
Six of Hearts Deuce of Clubs
Ace of Clubs Deuce of Diamonds
Nine of Hearts Seven of Diamonds
Six of Spades Eight of Diamonds
Ten of Spades King of Hearts
Four of Clubs Ace of Spades
Ten of Hearts Four of Spades
Eight of Hearts Eight of Spades
Jack of Hearts Ten of Diamonds
Four of Diamonds King of Diamonds
Seven of Hearts King of Spades
Queen of Spades Four of Hearts
Nine of Clubs Six of Diamonds
Deuce of Hearts Jack of Clubs
King of Clubs Three of Spades
Queen of Clubs Five of Clubs
Five of Hearts Ace of Diamonds

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
Function Pointers
● Pointers to functions
○ Contain address of function
○ Similar to how array name is address of first element
○ Function name is starting address of code that defines function
● Function pointers can be
○ Passed to functions
○ Returned from functions
○ Stored in arrays
○ Assigned to other function pointers

52
Function Pointers
● Calling functions using pointers
○ Assume parameter:
■ bool ( *compare ) ( int, int )
○ Execute function with either
■ ( *compare ) ( int1, int2 )
● Dereference pointer to function to execute
OR
■ compare( int1, int2 )
● Could be confusing
○ User may think compare name of actual function in program

53
 54
1 // Fig. 5.25: fig05_25.cpp Outline
2 // Multipurpose sorting program using function pointers.
3 #include <iostream>
4 fig05_25.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 5)
6 using std::cin;
7 using std::endl;
8
9 #include <iomanip>
10
11 using std::setw; Parameter is pointer to
12 function that receives two
13 // prototypes integer parameters and
14 void bubble( int [], const int, bool (*)( int, int ) ); returns bool result.
15 void swap( int * const, int * const );
16 bool ascending( int, int );
17 bool descending( int, int );
18
19 int main()
20 {
21 const int arraySize = 10;
22 int order;
23 int counter;
24 int a[ arraySize ] = { 2, 6, 4, 8, 10, 12, 89, 68, 45, 37 };
25

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 55
26 cout << "Enter 1 to sort in ascending order,\n" Outline
27 << "Enter 2 to sort in descending order: ";
28 cin >> order;
29 cout << "\nData items in original order\n"; fig05_25.cpp
30
(2 of 5)
31 // output original array
32 for ( counter = 0; counter < arraySize; counter++ )
33 cout << setw( 4 ) << a[ counter ];
34
35 // sort array in ascending order; pass function ascending
36 // as an argument to specify ascending sorting order
37 if ( order == 1 ) {
38 bubble( a, arraySize, ascending );
39 cout << "\nData items in ascending order\n";
40 }
41
42 // sort array in descending order; pass function descending
43 // as an agrument to specify descending sorting order
44 else {
45 bubble( a, arraySize, descending );
46 cout << "\nData items in descending order\n";
47 }
48

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 56
49 // output sorted array Outline
50 for ( counter = 0; counter < arraySize; counter++ )
51 cout << setw( 4 ) << a[ counter ];
52 fig05_25.cpp
53 cout << endl;
(3 of 5)
54
55 return 0; // indicates successful termination
56
57 } // end main
58
59 compare
// multipurpose bubble sort; parameter compare is pointertoto
is a pointer
60 // the comparison function that determines function
sorting that
orderreceives two
61 void bubble( int work[], const int size, integer parameters and
62 bool (*compare)( int, int ) ) returns bool result.
63 {
64 // loop to control passes
Parentheses necessary to
65 for ( int pass = 1; pass < size; pass++ )
66 indicate pointer to function
67 // loop to control number of comparisons per pass
68 Call -passed
for ( int count = 0; count < size function
1; count++ )
69 compare; dereference
70 // if adjacent elements are pointer
out oftoorder,
executeswap
function.
them
71 if ( (*compare)( work[ count ], work[ count + 1 ] ) )
72 swap( &work[ count ], &work[ count + 1 ] );

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 57
73 Outline
74 } // end function bubble
75
76 // swap values at memory locations to which fig05_25.cpp
77 // element1Ptr and element2Ptr point
(4 of 5)
78 void swap( int * const element1Ptr, int * const element2Ptr )
79 {
80 int hold = *element1Ptr;
81 *element1Ptr = *element2Ptr;
82 *element2Ptr = hold;
83
84 } // end function swap
85
86 // determine whether elements are out of order
87 // for an ascending order sort
88 bool ascending( int a, int b )
89 {
90 return b < a; // swap if b is less than a
91
92 } // end function ascending
93

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 58
94 // determine whether elements are out of order Outline
95 // for a descending order sort
96 bool descending( int a, int b )
97 { fig05_25.cpp
98 return b > a; // swap if b is greater than a
(5 of 5)
99
100 } // end function descending
fig05_25.cpp
Enter 1 to sort in ascending order, output (1 of 1)
Enter 2 to sort in descending order: 1

Data items in original order

2 6 4 8 10 12 89 68 45 37
Data items in ascending order
2 4 6 8 10 12 37 45 68 89

Enter 1 to sort in ascending order,

Enter 2 to sort in descending order: 2

Data items in original order

2 6 4 8 10 12 89 68 45 37
Data items in descending order
89 68 45 37 12 10 8 6 4 2

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Function Pointers
● Arrays of pointers to functions

○ Menu-driven systems

○ Pointers to each function stored in array of pointers to functions

■ All functions must have same return type and same parameter types

○ Menu choice  subscript into array of function pointers

59
 60
1 // Fig. 5.26: fig05_26.cpp Outline
2 // Demonstrating an array of pointers to functions.
3 #include <iostream>
4 fig05_26.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 3)
6 using std::cin;
7 using std::endl;
8
9 // function prototypes
10 void function1( int );
11 void function2( int );
12 void function3( int );
13
14 int main()
15 { Array initialized with names
16 of three functions;
// initialize array of 3 pointers to functions that each function
17 // take an int argument and return void names are pointers.
18 void (*f[ 3 ])( int ) = { function1, function2, function3 };
19
20 int choice;
21
22 cout << "Enter a number between 0 and 2, 3 to end: ";
23 cin >> choice;
24

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 61
25 // process user's choice Outline
26 while ( choice >= 0 && choice < 3 ) {
27
28 // invoke function at location choice in array f fig05_26.cpp
29 // and pass choice as an argument
(2 of 3)
30 (*f[ choice ])( choice );
31
32 cout << "Enter a number between 0 and 2, 3 to end: ";
33 cin >> choice;
34 } Call chosen function by
35 dereferencing corresponding
36 cout << "Program execution element<<in endl;
completed." array.
37
38 return 0; // indicates successful termination
39
40 } // end main
41
42 void function1( int a )
43 {
44 cout << "You entered " << a
45 << " so function1 was called\n\n";
46
47 } // end function1
48

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 62
49 void function2( int b ) Outline
50 {
51 cout << "You entered " << b
52 << " so function2 was called\n\n"; fig05_26.cpp
53
(3 of 3)
54 } // end function2
55
56 void function3( int c ) fig05_26.cpp
57 { output (1 of 1)
58 cout << "You entered " << c
59 << " so function3 was called\n\n";
60
61 } // end function3

Enter a number between 0 and 2, 3 to end: 0

You entered 0 so function1 was called

Enter a number between 0 and 2, 3 to end: 1

You entered 1 so function2 was called

Enter a number between 0 and 2, 3 to end: 2

You entered 2 so function3 was called

Enter a number between 0 and 2, 3 to end: 3

Program execution completed.

 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.

All rights reserved.
Fundamentals of Characters
and Strings
● Character constant
○ Integer value represented as character in single quotes
○ 'z' is integer value of z
■ 122 in ASCII
● String
○ Series of characters treated as single unit
○ Can include letters, digits, special characters +, -, * ...
○ String literal (string constants)
■ Enclosed in double quotes, for example:
"I like C++"
○ Array of characters, ends with null character '\0'
○ String is constant pointer
■ Pointer to string’s first character
● Like arrays

63
Fundamentals of Characters
and
● StringStrings
assignment
○ Character array
■ char color[] = "blue";
● Creates 5 element char array color
○ last element is '\0'
○ Variable of type char *
■ char *colorPtr = "blue";
● Creates pointer colorPtr to letter b in string “blue”
○ “blue” somewhere in memory
○ Alternative for character array
■ char color[] = { ‘b’, ‘l’, ‘u’, ‘e’, ‘\0’ };

64
Fundamentals of Characters
and Strings
● Reading strings
○ Assign input to character array word[ 20 ]

cin >> word

■ Reads characters until whitespace or EOF

■ String could exceed array size

cin >> setw( 20 ) >> word;

■ Reads 19 characters (space reserved for '\0')

65
Fundamentals of Characters
and Strings
● cin.getline
○ Read line of text
○ cin.getline( array, size, delimiter );
○ Copies input into specified array until either
■ One less than size is reached
■ delimiter character is input
○ Example
char sentence[ 80 ];
cin.getline( sentence, 80, '\n' );

66
String Manipulation Functions
of the String-handling Library
● String handling library <cstring> provides functions to

○ Manipulate string data

○ Compare strings

○ Search strings for characters and other strings

○ Tokenize strings (separate strings into logical pieces)

67
String Manipulation Functions of
the String-handling Library
char *strcpy( char *s1, const Copies the string s2 into the character
char *s2 ); array s1. The value of s1 is returned.
char *strncpy( char *s1, const Copies at most n characters of the string s2
char *s2, size_t n ); into the character array s1. The value of s1 is
returned.
char *strcat( char *s1, const Appends the string s2 to the string s1. The
char *s2 ); first character of s2 overwrites the terminating
null character of s1. The value of s1 is
returned.
char *strncat( char *s1, const Appends at most n characters of string s2 to
char *s2, size_t n ); string s1. The first character of s2 overwrites
the terminating null character of s1. The value
of s1 is returned.

int strcmp( const char *s1, Compares the string s1 with the string s2. The
const char *s2 ); function returns a value of zero, less than zero
or greater than zero if s1 is equal to, less than
or greater than s2, respectively.

68
String Manipulation Functions of
the String-handling Library
int strncmp( const char *s1, const Compares up to n characters of the string
char *s2, size_t n ); s1 with the string s2. The function returns
zero, less than zero or greater than zero if
s1 is equal to, less than or greater than s2,
respectively.
char *strtok( char *s1, const char A sequence of calls to strtok breaks
*s2 ); string s1 into “tokens”—logical pieces
such as words in a line of text—delimited
by characters contained in string s2. The
first call contains s1 as the first argument,
and subsequent calls to continue tokenizing
the same string contain NULL as the first
argument. A pointer to the current to­ken is
returned by each call. If there are no more
tokens when the function is called, NULL is
returned.

size_t strlen( const char *s ); Determines the length of string s. The

number of characters preceding the
terminating null character is returned.
69
String Manipulation Functions of
the String-handling Library
● Copying strings
○ char *strcpy( char *s1, const char *s2 )
■ Copies second argument into first argument
● First argument must be large enough to store string and terminating
null character
○ char *strncpy( char *s1, const char *s2, size_t n )
■ Specifies number of characters to be copied from string into array
■ Does not necessarily copy terminating null character

70