Manufacturing Processes

for Engineering Metals

I3831TP

Lecture Set VIII – Sheet Metal Forming

 Learning
Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
• Classify and describe various sheet metalworking operations.
• Evaluate the mechanics of sheet metal cutting, deep drawing and
bending operations.
• Relate sheet metal anisotropy to defect formation in formed
components.

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 Introduction
• Also called press working operations. Most sheet-metal operations are

performed on machine tools called presses.

• The term stamping press is used to distinguish these presses from forging and

extrusion presses.

• Use set of punch and die. A punch is the portion of the tool attached to the ram

of the press and is inserted into the die. A die is usually the stationary portion of

the tool attached to the press bed. It has a cavity to accept the punch.

• Sheet metalworking operations are performed on thin (less than 6 mm) sheets,

strips or coils of metal by means of a set of tools called punch and die on

machine tools called stamping presses.

• They are always performed as cold working operations.

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• The stock used in sheet metalworking is produced by flat rolling.
• The thickness or lateral dimensions of the work piece are intentionally changed in

bulk deformation. In sheet-forming any changes in thickness is due to stretching of

sheet under tensile stresses (Poisson’s Effect).

• Thickness decreases should generally be avoided as they lead to necking and

failure.
• Sheet metalworking includes cutting and forming operations performed on relatively
thin sheets of metal.
• The most commonly used sheet metal is low carbon steel (0.06%–0.15% C typical).
Its low cost and good formability, combined with sufficient strength for most product
applications, make it ideal as a starting material.
• The three major categories of sheet-metal processes are (1) cutting, (2) bending,
and (3) drawing.
• Cutting is used to separate large sheets into smaller pieces, to cut out part
perimeters, and to make holes in parts.
• Bending and drawing are used to form sheet-metal parts into their required
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shapes.
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 Cutting Operations
• Cutting of sheet metal is accomplished by a shearing action between two sharp
cutting edges.
• The shearing action is depicted in the four stop-action sketches of Figure 20.1, in
which the upper cutting edge (the punch) sweeps down past a stationary lower
cutting edge (the die).
• As the punch begins to push into the work, plastic deformation occurs in the
surfaces of the sheet.
• As the punch moves downward, penetration occurs in which the punch
compresses the sheet and cuts into the metal. This penetration zone is generally
about one-third the thickness of the sheet.
• As the punch continues to travel into the work, fracture is initiated in the work at
the two cutting edges.
• If the clearance between the punch and die is correct, the two fracture lines meet,
resulting
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• The sheared edges of the sheet have characteristic features as in Figure 20.2. At
the top of the cut surface is a region called the rollover.
• This corresponds to the depression made by the punch in the work prior to
cutting.
• It is where initial plastic deformation occurred in the work.
• Just below the rollover is a relatively smooth region called the burnish.
• This results from penetration of the punch into the work before fracture began.
• Beneath the burnish is the fractured zone, a relatively rough surface of the cut
edge where continued downward movement of the punch caused fracture of the
metal.
• Finally, at the bottom of the edge is a burr, a sharp corner on the edge caused by
elongation of the metal during final separation of the two pieces.

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 Shearing, Blanking, and Punching
• The three most important operations in pressworking that cut metal by the
shearing mechanism just described are shearing, blanking, and punching.
• Shearing is a sheet-metal cutting operation along a straight line between two
cutting edges, as shown in Figure 20.3(a). Shearing is typically used to cut large
sheets into smaller sections for subsequent pressworking operations. It is
performed on a machine called a power shears, or squaring shears. The upper
blade of the power shears is often inclined, as shown in Figure 20.3(b), to reduce
the required cutting force.
• Blanking involves cutting of the sheet metal along a closed outline in a single
step to separate the piece from the surrounding stock, as in Figure 20.4(a). The
part that is cut out is the desired product in the operation and is called the blank.
• Punching is similar to blanking except that it produces a hole, and the separated
piece is scrap, called the slug. The remaining stock is the desired part. The
distinction
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is illustrated in Figure 20.4(b).
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 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS OF SHEET-METAL
CUTTING

• Process parameters in sheet-metal cutting are clearance between punch

and die, stock thickness, type of metal and its strength, and length of the
cut. Let us define these parameters and some of the relationships among
them.
• Clearance, c, in a shearing operation is the distance between the punch
and die, as shown in Figure 20.1(a).
• Typical clearances in conventional pressworking range between 4% and
8% of the sheet-metal thickness t.
• The effect of improper clearances is illustrated in Figure 20.5.
• If the clearance is too small, then the fracture lines tend to pass each
other, causing a double burnishing and larger cutting forces.
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• If the clearance is too large, the metal becomes pinched between the cutting
edges and an excessive burr results.
• In special operations requiring very straight edges, such as shaving and fine
blanking, clearance is only about 1% of stock thickness.

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 Example 20.1 Blanking Clearance and Force

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 Other sheet-metal-cutting operations
• In addition to shearing, blanking, and punching, there are several other cutting
operations in pressworking. The cutting mechanism in each case involves the same
shearing action discussed above.
• Cutoff is a shearing operation in which blanks are separated from a sheet-metal
strip by cutting the opposite sides of the part in sequence, as shown in Figure
20.8(a). With each cut, a new part is produced. The features of a cutoff operation
that distinguish it from a conventional shearing operation are (1) the cut edges are
not necessarily straight, and (2) the blanks can be nested on the strip in such a way
that scrap is avoided.
• Parting involves cutting a sheet-metal strip by a punch with two cutting edges that
match the opposite sides of the blank, as shown in Figure 20.8(b). This might be
required because the part outline has an irregular shape that precludes perfect
nesting of the blanks on the strip. Parting is less efficient than cutoff in the sense
that it results in some wasted material.
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 Slotting, Perforating, and Notching
• Slotting is the term sometimes used for a punching operation that cuts out
an elongated or rectangular hole, as pictured in Figure 20.9(a).
• Perforating involves the simultaneous punching of a pattern of holes in
sheet metal, as in Figure 20.9(b).
• The hole pattern is usually for decorative purposes, or to allow passage of
light, gas, or fluid.
• To obtain the desired outline of a blank, portions of the sheet metal are
often removed by notching and semi-notching.
• Notching involves cutting out a portion of metal from the side of the sheet
or strip.
• Semi-notching removes a portion of metal from the interior of the sheet.
• These operations are depicted in Figure 20.9(c).

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• Semi-notching might seem to be the same as a punching or slotting operation.
• The difference is that the metal removed by seminotching creates part of the blank
outline, while punching and slotting create holes in the blank.

Trimming, Shaving, and Fine Blanking.

• Trimming is a cutting operation performed on a formed part to remove excess
metal and establish size.
• The term has the same basic meaning here as in forging.
• A typical example in sheet metalwork is trimming the upper portion of a deep
drawn cup to leave the desired dimensions on the cup.
• Shaving is a shearing operation performed with very small clearance to obtain
accurate dimensions and cut edges that are smooth and straight, as pictured in
Figure 20.10(a).
• Shaving is typically performed as a secondary or finishing operation on parts that
have been previously cut.
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• Fine blanking is a shearing operation used to blank sheet-metal
parts with close tolerances and smooth, straight edges in one step,
as illustrated in Figure 20.10(b).
• At the start of the cycle, a pressure pad with a V-shaped projection
applies a holding force Fh against the work adjacent to the punch in
order to compress the metal and prevent distortion.
• The punch then descends with a slower-than-normal velocity and
smaller clearances to provide the desired dimensions and cut
edges.
• The process is usually reserved for relatively small stock
thicknesses.

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 BENDING OPERATIONS

• Bending in sheet-metalwork is defined as the straining of the metal

around a straight axis, as in Figure 20.11.
• During the bending operation, the metal on the inside of the neutral
plane is compressed, while the metal on the outside of the neutral plane
is stretched.
• These strain conditions can be seen in Figure 20.11(b).The metal is
plastically deformed so that the bend takes a permanent set upon
removal of the stresses that caused it.
• Bending produces little or no change in the thickness of the sheet metal.

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 V-Bending and Edge Bending

• Bending operations are performed using punch and die tooling.

• The two common bending methods and associated tooling are V-
bending, performed with a V-die; and edge bending, performed with a
wiping die.
• These methods are illustrated in Figure 20.12.

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 PRESS BRAKE

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 Sheet-Metal Bending

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 Other Bending and Forming Operations
• Some sheet-metal operations involve bending over a curved axis
rather than a straight axis, or they have other features that
differentiate them from the bending operations described above.

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 Drawing

• Drawing is a sheet-metal-forming operation used to make cup-shaped,

box-shaped, or other complex-curved and concave parts.
• It is performed by placing a piece of sheet metal over a die cavity and
then pushing the metal into the opening with a punch, as in Figure
20.19.
• The blank must usually be held down flat against the die by a
blankholder.
• Common parts made by drawing include beverage cans, ammunition
shells, sinks, cooking pots, and automobile body panels.

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 Mechanics of Drawing

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• As the punch moves further down, a straightening action occurs in the
metal that was previously bent over the die radius, as in Figure 20.20(3).
• The metal at the bottom of the cup, as well as along the punch radius, has
been moved downward with the punch, but the metal that was bent over
the die radius must now be straightened in order to be pulled into the
clearance to form the wall of the cylinder.
• At the same time, more metal must be added to replace that being used
in the cylinder wall.
• This new metal comes from the outside edge of the blank.
• The metal in the outer portions of the blank is pulled or drawn toward the
die opening to resupply the previously bent and straightened metal now
forming the cylinder wall.
• This type of metal flow through a constricted space gives the drawing
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process its name.
• During this stage of the process, friction and compression play important roles
in the flange of the blank.
• In order for the material in the flange to move toward the die opening, friction
between the sheet metal and the surfaces of the blankholder and the die must
be overcome.
• Initially, static friction is involved until the metal starts to slide; then, after metal
flow begins, dynamic friction governs the process.
• The magnitude of the holding force applied by the blankholder, as well as the
friction conditions at the two interfaces, are determining factors in the success
of this aspect of the drawing operation.
• Lubricants or drawing compounds are generally used to reduce friction forces.
In addition to friction, compression is also occurring in the outer edge of the
blank.
• As the metal in this portion of the blank is drawn toward the center, the outer
perimeter
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• Because the volume of metal remains constant, the metal is squeezed
and becomes thicker as the perimeter is reduced.
• This often results in wrinkling of the remaining flange of the blank,
especially when thin sheet metal is drawn, or when the blankholder force
is too low.
• It is a condition which cannot be corrected once it has occurred.
• The friction and compression effects are illustrated in Figure 20.20(4).
• The holding force applied by the blankholder is now seen to be a critical
factor in deep drawing.
• If it is too small, wrinkling occurs.
• If it is too large, it prevents the metal from flowing properly toward the die
cavity, resulting in stretching and possible tearing of the sheet metal.
• Determining the proper holding force involves a delicate balance
between these opposing factors.
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• Progressive downward motion of the punch results in a
continuation of the metal flow caused by drawing and
compression.
• In addition, some thinning of the cylinder wall occurs, as in
Figure 20.20(5). The force being applied by the punch is
opposed by the metal in the form of deformation and friction
in the operation.
• A portion of the deformation involves stretching and thinning
of the metal as it is pulled over the edge of the die opening.
• Up to 25% thinning of the side wall may occur in a
successful drawing operation, mostly near the base of the
cup.
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 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS OF DRAWING

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 Example 20.3 Cup Drawing

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 Example 20.4 Forces in Drawing

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 Defects in Drawing

• Sheet-metal drawing is a more complex operation than cutting or

bending, and more things can go wrong.
• A number of defects can occur in a drawn product, some of which we
have already alluded to.
• Following is a list of common defects, with sketches in Figure 20.24:
(a) Wrinkling in the flange: Wrinkling in a drawn part consists of a series
of ridges that form radially in the undrawn flange of the workpart due to
compressive buckling.
(b) Wrinkling in the wall: If and when the wrinkled flange is drawn into
the cup, these ridges appear in the vertical wall.

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 (c) Tearing: Tearing is an open crack in the vertical wall, usually near
the base of the drawn cup, due to high tensile stresses that cause
thinning and failure of the metal at this location. This type of failure
can also occur as the metal is pulled over a sharp die corner.
(d) Earing: This is the formation of irregularities (called ears) in the
upper edge of a deep drawn cup, caused by anisotropy in the sheet
metal. If the material is perfectly isotropic, ears do not form.
(e) Surface scratches: Surface scratches can occur on the drawn part
if the punch and die are not smooth or if lubrication is insufficient.

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 o fim

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