UNIT 5 - DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION

SYSTEMS
 TYPES OF DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEM

• Thermoelectric power
• Thermionic power
• Fuel cells
• Magnetohydrodynamic systems (MHD systems)
 THERMOELECTRIC POWER

• Thermoelectricity refers to a phenomena in which a temperature difference

creates an electric potential or an electric potential creates a temperature
difference.
• Thermoelectric power generator is a device that converts the heat energy into
electrical energy based on the principle of Seebeck effect
• Seebeck effect - When a temperature difference is established between the hot
and cold junctions of two dissimilar materials (metals or semiconductors) a
voltage is generated, i.e. Seebeck voltage.
 PRINCIPLE OF THERMOELECTRIC POWER

• In the metallic conductors the outer electrons can move freely as if they do not
belong to any atom. These electrons transmit energy through the temperature
difference, and the energy intensity varies depending on the nature of the
material.
• If two different materials are in contact with each other, free electrons will be
transferred from the more loaded material to the other and it creates a potential
difference, called contact potential difference.
 THERMOELECTRIC POWER

• Thermoelectricity refers to a phenomena in which a temperature

difference creates an electric potential or an electric potential creates a
temperature difference.

• Thermoelectric power generator is a device that converts the heat energy

into electrical energy based on the principle of Seebeck effect
THERMOELECTRIC POWER
 SEEBECK EFFECT
• The electric potential produced by a temperature difference is known as the Seebeck effect and
the proportionality constant is called the Seebeck coefficient. If the charges are positive (P-type
material), a positive charge will build up on the cold end which will have a positive potential.
Similarly, negative charges (N-type material) will produce a negative potential at the cold end.
 PELTIER EFFECT

• Whenever current passes through the circuit of two dissimilar conductors,

depending on the current direction, heat is either absorbed or released at the
junction of the two conductors.
• This is known as the Peltier effect.
PELTIER THERMOELECTRIC COUPLE
 THOMSON EFFECT

• Heat is absorbed or generated when the current flows in a material with a certain
temperature gradient. The heat is proportional to both the electric current and the
temperature gradient.

• This is known as the Thomson effect.

 THERMOELECTRIC MATERIALS

• The good thermoelectric materials should possess

1. Large Seebeck coefficients
2. High electrical conductivity
3. Low thermal conductivity

• The example for thermoelectric materials

• Bismuth Telluride (Bi2Te3),
• Lead Telluride (PbTe),
• Silicon Germanium (SiGe),
• Bismuth-Antimony (Bi-Sb)
BASIC THERMOELECTRIC GENERATOR
 THERMIONIC POWER
• (T = 1000K). Thermionic power generator (TPG) is a static device that converts heat
energy into electrical energy by boiling of electrons from a hot emitter surface (T=1800
K) across a small inter-electrode gap (< 0.5 mm) to a cooler collector surface
• A thermionic power generator is a device consisting of two electrodes placed near one
another in a vacuum.
• One electrode is called the cathode or the emitter, and the other is called the anode or the
plate. Electrons in the cathode are prevented from escaping from the surface by a
potential energy barrier. When an electron starts to move away from the surface, it
induces a corresponding positive charge in the material, which tends to pull it back into
 THERMIONIC POWER

• To escape, the electron should acquire enough energy to overcome the energy
barrier. At ordinary temperatures, almost none of the electrons can acquire
enough energy to escape.
• However, when the cathode is very hot, the electron energies are greatly
increased by the thermal motion.
• At sufficiently high temperatures, a considerable number of electrons are able to
escape.
• The liberation of electrons from a hot surface is called thermionic emission.
THERMIONIC EMISSION
 THERMIONIC POWER
Advantages:
• Higher efficiency and high power density
• Compact

Limitations:
• There is a possibility of vapourization of the emitter surface
• Thermal breaking is possible during operation
• The sealing often gets failure
 MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS

• For the conventional power plants, thermal energy is converted into kinetic
energy which is then converted into electrical energy.
• For MHD, thermal energy is directly converted to electrical energy, hence known
as direct energy conversion system.
• Magnetohydrodynamics power generation technology is the production of
electrical power utilizing a high temperature conducting plasma moving through
an intense magnetic field.
MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS
 WORKING PRINCIPLE

• When an electric conductor moves across a magnetic field, a voltage is induced in

it which produces an electric current. This is the principle of the conventional
generator where the conductors consist of copper strips.
• In MHD generator, the solid conductors are replaced by a gaseous conductor, an
ionized gas. If such a gas is passed at a high velocity through a powerful
magnetic field, a current is generated and can be extracted by placing electrodes
in suitable position in the stream
OPEN CYCLE MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS
 OPEN CYCLE MHD

• The fuel used maybe oil through an oil tank or gasified coal through a coal
gasification plant. The fuel (coal, oil or natural gas) is burnt in the combustor or
combustion chamber.
• The hot gases from combustor are then seeded with a small amount of ionized
alkali metal (caesium or potassium) to increase the electrical conductivity of the
gas. The seed material, generally potassium carbonate is injected into the
combustion chamber; the potassium is then ionized by the hot combustion gases
at temperature of roughly 2300 to 27000 C.
 OPEN CYCLE MHD

• To attain such high temperatures, the compressed air is used to burn the coal in the combustion
chamber, must be adequate to at least 11000 C.
• A lower preheat temperature would be adequate if the air is enriched in oxygen.

• An alternative is used to compress oxygen alone for combustion of fuel, little or no preheating
is then required. The additional cost of oxygen might be balanced by saving on the preheater.
• The hot pressurized working fluid leaving in the combustor flows through a convergent
divergent nozzle. On passing through the nozzle, the random motion of the molecules in the
hot gas is largely converted into directed mass of energy. Thus, the gas emerges from the
nozzle and enters the MHD generator unit at a high velocity.
CLOSED CYCLE MHD – SEEDED INERT GAS
 CLOSED CYCLE MHD – SEEDED INERT GAS

• In a closed cycle MHD system the carrier gas operates in the form of a Brayton
cycle. The gas is compressed and the heat is supplied by the source, at constant
pressure, the compressed gas then expands in the MHD generator, and its
pressure and temperature falls.
• After leaving the generator, the heat is removed from the gas by a cooler, this is
the heat rejection stage of the cycle. Finally the gas is recompressed and
returned for reheating.
 CLOSED CYCLE MHD – SEEDED INERT GAS

• The complete system has three distinct but interlocking loops. On the left is the
external heating loop. Coal is gasified and the gas is burnt in the combustor to
provide heat.
• In the primary heat exchanger, this heat is transferred to a carrier gas, Argon or
Helium of the MHD cycle. The combustion products after passing through the
preheated air and purifier are discharged to atmosphere.
CLOSED CYCLE MHD - LIQUID METAL SYSTEM
 CLOSED CYCLE MHD - LIQUID METAL SYSTEM

• When a liquid metal provides the electrical conductivity, it is called a liquid metal
MHD system. An inert gas is a carrier. The carrier gas is pressurized and heated by
passage through a heat exchanger within combustion chamber.
• The hot gas is then incorporated into the liquid metal usually hot sodium to form the
working fluid. The latter then consists of gas bubbles uniformly dispersed in an
approximately equal volume of liquid sodium.
• The working fluid is introduced into the MHD generator through a nozzle in the
usual ways. The carrier gas then provides the required high direct velocity of the
electrical conductor.
 COMPARISON OF MHD SYSTEMS

Description Open cycle MHD Closed cycle MHD

Working fluid Air + hot gases + Ar or He or Liquid metals

seed material (Na) + Cesium seed

Recirculation of working No Yes

fluid
Operating temperature 2300 to 3000 C 2000 C

Technology developed More Less

 SELECTION FACTORS FOR THE MATERIALS
OF MHD GENERATORS

1. Thermal shock resistance

2. Electrical conductivity
3. Corrosion resistance
4. Erosion resistance
5. Oxidation reduction resistance
6. Melting point of the materials and density
 ADVANTAGES OF MHD SYSTEMS
• The conversion efficiency of a MHD system can be around 50% much higher compared
to the most efficient steam plants. Still higher efficiencies are expected in the future,
around 60 – 65 %, with the improvements in the technology.

• Large amount of power is generated.

• It has no moving parts, so more reliable.

• The closed cycle system generates power which is pollution free.

• Ability to reach the full power as soon as started.

• The size if the plant is considerably smaller than conventional fossil fuel plants
 LIMITATIONS OF MHD SYSTEMS

• Suffers from reverse flow (short circuits) of electrons through the conducting
fluids around the ends of the magnetic field.
• Needs very large magnets and this is a major expense.
• High friction and heat transfer losses.
• Corrosion and erosion of components due to alkaline seeds and high velocity
gases.
 FUEL CELLS

• A fuel cell is a device that electrochemically converts the chemical energy of a

fuel and an oxidant to electrical energy.
• The fuel and oxidant are typically stored outside of the fuel cell and transferred
into the fuel cell as the reactants are consumed.
• The most common type of fuel cell uses the chemical energy of hydrogen and
oxygen (H2-O2) to produce electricity, with water and heat as the by-products.

• Fuel cells can provide energy for systems as large as a utility power station and
as small as a laptop computer.
 TYPES OF FUEL CELLS

The types of fuel cells are mostly named based on the electrolyte used in the fuel
cells. The major five types are mentioned below:
• Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC)
• Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC)
• Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)
• Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
• Molten Carbonate Fuel cells (MCFC)
 POLYMER ELECTROLYTE MEMBRANE FUEL CELL (PEMFC)

H2-O2 Fuel Cell or Polymer electrolyte membrane

(PEM) fuel cells—also called Proton Exchange
Membrane fuel cells—deliver high power density
and offer the advantages of low weight and volume.
PEM fuel cells use a solid polymer as an electrolyte
and porous carbon electrodes containing a platinum
catalyst. They need only hydrogen, oxygen from the
air, and water to operate and do not require
 PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELL (PAFC)

Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs) use liquid

phosphoric acid as the electrolyte and porous carbon
electrodes containing a platinum catalyst. The chemical
reactions that take place in the cell are shown in the
diagram to the right. It is the first to be used
commercially. This type of fuel cell is typically used for
stationary power generation, but some PAFCs have been
used to power large vehicles such as buses.
 SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL (SOFC)

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) use a hard, non-porous

ceramic compound as the electrolyte. SOFCs are
expected to be around 50-60 percent efficient at
converting fuel to electricity. In applications designed
to utilize the system's waste heat (co-generation),
overall efficiency is 80-85 percent. Solid oxide fuel
cells operate at very high temperatures around 1000°C.
High temperature operation removes the need for
precious-metal catalyst, thereby reducing the cost.
 MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL CELLS (MCFC)

MCFCs are high-temperature fuel cells that use an electrolyte

composed of a molten carbonate salt mixture. Since they operate at
extremely high temperatures of 650 °C and above, non-precious
metals can be used as catalysts at the anode and cathode, reducing
costs. Molten carbonate fuel cells can reach efficiencies
approaching 60%.
 COMPARISON OF VARIOUS FUEL CELLS
Description PEMFC AFC PAFC MCFC SOFC

Temperature 50 -100C 50 – 250 C 100 – 200 C 650 C 500 -1000C

Efficiency 40 – 50% 70% 40-60% 60-80% 60%

Power OP 50 – 250 0.3kW – 5 kW 11 MW 2-100 MW 100 kW

kW

Electrolyte Polymer KOH Phosphoric Molten Solid Oxide

acid Carbonate
 CHARACTERISTICS OF FUEL CELLS

• High energy conversion efficiency

• Modular design
• Very low chemical and acoustical pollution
• Fuel flexibility
• Cogeneration capability
• Rapid load response
• Potable water as by-product
 ADVANTAGES OF FUEL CELLS
• Fuel cell power plants produce dramatically fewer emissions, and their by-products are
primarily water and carbon dioxide.
• Fuel cell power plants are nearly twice as efficient as conventional power plants.

• Small-scale fuel cell plants are just as efficient as large ones, and operation at partial load is as
efficient as at full load.
• High-grade waste heat from fuel cell systems is perfect for use in cogeneration, heating, and air-
conditioning.
• The fuel cell stack is the basic component of a fuel cell power plant. Stacks are combined into
modules, and the number of modules determines the plant capacity.
• The individual modules can go from ideal to full load in minutes.
 LIMITATIONS OF FUEL CELLS

• The fuel cell uses pure oxygen and hydrogen to generate electricity.
• The oxygen required for a fuel cell comes from the air.
• The hydrogen is not so readily available.
• Hydrogen is difficult to store and distribute.
• Hydrogen has limitations that make it impractical for use in most applications.
 APPLICATIONS OF THE FUEL CELLS

• Automotive power Transportation – cars, buses etc.

• Stationary power plant as well as portable power
• Cogeneration
• Uninterrupted power supply
• Emergency power supply
• Micropower generation
• Consumer electronics / domestic use
• Waste heat recovery systems
 HYDROGEN ENERGY

• Hydrogen has highest energy content per unit of mass of any chemical fuel.
• Non polluting.

• The heating value of H2 is 28000 kcal/kg.

• Easy to produce, because it is produced from water found in abundance.

• Hydrogen is highly flammable.
• Hydrogen at ordinary pressure and temperature is a light gas with a density only
(1/14th) that of air and (1/9th) that of natural gas under the same condition.
HYDROGEN ENERGY
 PRODUCTION OF HYDROGEN

• Electrolysis : In electrolysis water spit in to H 2 and O2 when electric current pass

through
• In this process two type of electrolysers are used: Tank type electrolyser and
Bipolar electrolyser.
• Thermochemical Methods (Iodine sulphur cycle)
• Fossil Fuel Methods
• Solar energy methods. (Bio Photolysis, Photo Electrolysis)
 ELECTROLYSIS

• The process of splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen by means of a direct
current is known as electrolysis.
• This is the simplest method of hydrogen production. An electrolyte (KOH
solution) is required because water itself is a poor conductor of electricity.
• Theoretically 1.23 volts are required for the process but in real situation higher
voltages are required for the electrolysis.
• The efficiency of electrolysis is roughly 60% - 70%.
• Platinum and nickel are normally used as catalysts.
 ELECTROLYSIS

• Diaphragms prevent the electronic contact

between adjacent electrodes and the
passage of dissolved gases or gas bubbles
from one electrode compartment to another
without appreciable resistance to the
passage of current within the electrolyte.
• Asbestos is the most suitable material for
the cell diaphragms
 FACTORS DETERMINING THE USEFULNESS
OF AN ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL
The 3 major factors which determine the usefulness of an electrochemical
cell for hydrogen production are
• Energy Efficiency.
• Capital cost of the plant.
• Lifetime of the cell and its maintenance requirements.
TANK TYPE ELECTROLYSER
 TANK TYPE ELECTROLYSER

• A series of electrodes, alternating anodes (+) and cathodes (-) are suspended
vertically and parallel to one another in a tank filled with a 20-30 % solution of
KOH in demineralized water.
• Alternate electrodes are surrounded by porous diaphragms impermeable to gas
but permeable to the electrolyte, that prevent the passage of gas from one
electrode compartment to another.
• All the anodes are connected to the positive terminal of the direct current voltage
source and all the cathodes are connected to the negative terminal.
 TANK TYPE ELECTROLYSER
• The major advantage of tank type electrolysers are relatively fewer parts are
required and those needed are relatively inexpensive.
• Another advantage of this arrangement is that individual cells may be isolated for
repair or replacement simply by short circuiting the two adjacent cells with a
temporary busbar connection.
• The limitation is that it cannot handle high current densities because of the
cheaper parts.
• Cannot operate at high temperatures because of heat losses from large surfaces
areas of connected cells.
BIPOLAR ELECTROLYSER
 BIPOLAR OR THE FILTER PRESS
ELECTROLYSER
• The filter press electrolyser is generally preferred because it
occupies less space and can be operated at a higher current
densities than the tank type.
• The economics are thus more favourable, since a large
production is possible in the plant.
• The filter press or the bipolar electrolysers are more difficult to
maintain.
• Breakdowns in this system are rare, but when they occur it is
difficult and repair may take considerable time.
 BIPOLAR OR THE FILTER PRESS
ELECTROLYSER
• If an individual asbestos diaphragm is damaged, the entire
battery must be dismantled.
• Higher cell voltage imply high energy costs, and low current
densities imply that the electrolysers give small yields per unit
time, leading to relatively high capital costs.
• For these reasons hydrogen produced electrolytically is twice as
expensive as the hydrogen produced from the fossil fuels
 THERMOCHEMICAL METHODS

• The higher conversion efficiency is possible if the heat produced by the primary fuel
could be used directly to decompose water, without the electric energy.
• Such direct decomposition into hydrogen and oxygen is possible, but it requires a
temperature of atleast 2500˚C.
• But due to temperature limitation and conversion process equipment, direct single
step water decomposition is not possible.
• However a sequential chemical reaction series can be devised in which hydrogen
and oxygen are produced, water is consumed and all other intermediates are
 FOSSIL FUEL METHODS

• Mostly a gaseous mixture of CO and Hydrogen is formed in the first stage, in the
production of hydrogen by using a fossil fuel.
• This is a popular method of hydrogen production through which about 94% hydrogen is
produced by following different processes.
 Steam reforming of gas

 Partial oxidation of heavier hydro carbon.

 Coal gasification

 Pyrolysis

 Biomass gasification
 SOLAR ENERGY METHODS

• For hydrogen production 2 methods are considered.

 Bio photolysis
 Photo Electrolysis

• The 1st method utilizes living systems (or the material derived from such
systems) to split water into its constituents hydrogen and oxygen.
• In normal photosynthesis of green plants, the green pigment chlorophyll takes
the energy from sunlight and in a complex series of reactions breaks up water
molecules into oxygen gas, hydrogen ions and electrons.
 PHOTO ELECTROLYSIS

• In photo electrolysis, a current is generated by exposing on or both electrodes to

the sunlight. Hydrogen and oxygen gases are liberated at the respective

electrodes by the decomposition of the water just as an ordinary electrolysis.

• Atleast one of the electrodes in the photosynthesis is usually a semiconductor. A

catalyst may be used to accelerate the electrolysis processes.

• Electrolysis is a more attractive way of producing hydrogen with solar radiation

since it can be operated intermittently and therefore needs no storage.

 REFERENCES

• “Non conventional energy sources” by [Link], Khanna Publishers, 5 th edition.

• “Non conventional energy resources” by [Link], Tata McGraw Hill publisher,
2nd edition.
• [Link]

For internal circulation only

59