Fundamentals Physics

Tenth Edition

Halliday

Chapter 31
Electromagnetic Oscillations and
Alternating Current
31-1 Electromagnetic Oscillations (1 of 16)
Learning Objectives
31.01 Sketch an LC oscillator and explain which
quantities oscillate and what constitutes one period
of the oscillation.
31.02 For an LC oscillator, sketch graphs of the potential
difference across the capacitor and the current
through the inductor as functions of time, and
indicate the period T on each graph.
31.03 Explain the analogy between a block–spring
oscillator and an LC oscillator.

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 2

31-1 Electromagnetic Oscillations (2 of 16)
31.04 For an LC oscillator, apply the relationships
between the angular frequency  (and the related
frequency f and period T) and the values of the
inductance and capacitance.
31.05 Starting with the energy of a block–spring system,
explain the derivation of the differential equation
for charge q in an LC oscillator and then identify
the solution for q(t).
31.06 For an LC oscillator, calculate the charge q on the
capacitor for any given time and identify the
amplitude Q of the charge oscillations.
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3
31-1 Electromagnetic Oscillations (3 of 16)
31.07 Starting from the equation giving the charge q(t)
on the capacitor in an LC oscillator, find the
current i(t) in the inductor as a function of time.
31.08 For an LC oscillator, calculate the current i in the
inductor for any given time and identify the
amplitude I of the current oscillations.
31.09 For an LC oscillator, apply the relationship
between the charge amplitude Q, the current
amplitude I, and the angular frequency .

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 4

31-1 Electromagnetic Oscillations (4 of 16)
31.10 From the expressions for the charge q and the
current i in an LC oscillator, find the magnetic field
energy UB(t) and the electric field energy UE(t) and
the total energy.
31.11 For an LC oscillator, sketch graphs of the magnetic
field energy UB(t), the electric field energy UE(t),
and the total energy, all as functions of time
31.12 Calculate the maximum values of the magnetic
field energy UB and the electric field energy UE and
also calculate the total energy..
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 5
31-1 Electromagnetic Oscillations (5 of 16)
Eight stages in a single cycle of oscillation of a resistance-less LC
circuit. The bar graphs by each figure show the stored magnetic and
electrical energies. The magnetic field lines of the inductor and the
electric field lines of the capacitor are shown. (a) Capacitor with
maximum charge, no current. (b) Capacitor discharging, current
increasing. (c) Capacitor fully discharged, current maximum. (d)
Capacitor charging but with polarity opposite that in (a), current
decreasing. (e) Capacitor with maximum charge having polarity
opposite that in (a), no current. (f) Capacitor discharging, current
increasing with direction opposite that in (b). (g) Capacitor fully
discharged, current maximum. (h) Capacitor charging, current
decreasing.

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 6

31-1 Electromagnetic Oscillations (6 of 16)

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 7

31-1 Electromagnetic Oscillations (7 of 16)
Parts (a) through (h) of the Figure show succeeding stages of the
oscillations in a simple LC circuit. The energy stored in the electric
field of the capacitor at any time is
q2
UE 
2C
where q is the charge on the capacitor at that time. The energy
stored in the magnetic field of the inductor at any time is
Li 2
UB 
2
where i is the current through the inductor at that time.
The resulting oscillations of the capacitor’s electric field and the
inductor’s magnetic field are said to be electromagnetic
oscillations.
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 8
31-1 Electromagnetic Oscillations (8 of 16)

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 9

31-1 Electromagnetic Oscillations (9 of 16)
Table 31-1 Comparison of the Energy in Two Oscillating Systems

Block–Spring System Block–Spring System LC Oscillator LC Oscillator

Element Energy Element Energy
Spring Potential, 12 kx 2 Capacitor Electrical, 12  C1 q 2
Block Kinetic, 12 mv 2 Inductor Magnetic, 12 Li 2
Blank dx Blank dq
v i
dt dt
Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

From the table we can deduce the correspondence between

these systems. Thus

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 10

31-1 Electromagnetic Oscillations (10 of 16)

q corresponds to x, 1
C corresponds to k ,
i corresponds to v, and L corresponds to m.

The correspondences listed above suggest that to find the

angular frequency of oscillation for an ideal
(resistanceless) LC circuit, k should be replaced by C1
and m by L, yielding
1
 LC circuit .
LC

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 11

31-1 Electromagnetic Oscillations (11 of 16)
LC Oscillator
The total energy U present at any instant in an oscillating LC circuit
is given by
Li 2 q 2
U U B  U E  
2 2C
in which UB is the energy stored in the magnetic field of the
inductor and UE is the energy stored in the electric field of the
capacitor. Since we have assumed the circuit resistance to be zero,
no energy is transferred to thermal energy and U remains constant
with time. In more formal language, dU must be zero. This leads to
dt

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 12

31-1 Electromagnetic Oscillations (12 of 16)

dU d  Li 2 q 2  di q dq
     Li  0.
dt dt  2 2C  dt C dt

dq di d 2 q
However, i  and  2 . With these substitutions, we get
dt dt dt

d 2q 1
L 2  q 0
dt C

This is the differential equation that describes the oscillations of a

resistanceless LC circuit.
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 13
31-1 Electromagnetic Oscillations (13 of 16)
Charge and Current Oscillation
The solution for the differential equation equation that
describes the oscillations of a resistanceless LC circuit is
q Q cos t   

where Q is the amplitude of the charge variation,  is the

angular frequency of the electromagnetic oscillations, and
 is the phase constant. Taking the first derivative of
the Equation with respect to time gives us the current:
above
dq
i   Q sin t   
dt
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 14
31-1 Electromagnetic Oscillations (14 of 16)
Checkpoint 2
A capacitor in an LC oscillator has a maximum potential
difference of 17 V and a maximum energy of 160  J.
When the capacitor has a potential difference of 5 V and
an energy of 10  J, what are (a) the emf across the
inductor and (b) the energy stored in the magnetic field?

Answer:
(a) εL= 12 V
(b) UB=150 μJ
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 15
31-1 Electromagnetic Oscillations (15 of 16)
Electrical and Magnetic Energy Oscillations
The electrical energy stored in the LC circuit at time t is
q2 Q2
UE   cos 2 t   .
2C 2C

The magnetic energy is,

Q2
U B  sin 2 t   .
2C

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 16

31-1 Electromagnetic Oscillations (16 of 16)
Figure shows plots of UE (t) and UB (t)
for the case of  0. Note that
1. The maximum values of UE and UB
2

are both 2QC .

2. At any instant the sum of UE and
2

UB is equal to 2QC , a constant.

3. When UE is maximum, UB is zero,
and conversely.

The stored magnetic energy and

electrical energy in the RL
circuit as a function of time.
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 17
31-2 Damped Oscillation in an RLC circuit
(1 of 5)

Learning Objectives
31.13 Draw the schematic of a damped RLC circuit and
explain why the oscillations are damped.
31.14 Starting with the expressions for the field energies
and the rate of energy loss in a damped RLC
circuit, write the differential equation for the
charge q on the capacitor.
31.15 For a damped RLC circuit, apply the expression for
charge q(t).

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 18

31-2 Damped Oscillation in an RLC circuit
(2 of 5)

31.16 Identify that in a damped RLC circuit, the charge

amplitude and the amplitude of the electric field
energy decrease exponentially with time.
31.17 Apply the relationship between the angular
frequency   of a given damped RLC oscillator
and the angular frequency  of the circuit if R is
removed.
31.18 For a damped RLC circuit, apply the expression for
the electric field energy UE as a function of time.

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 19

31-2 Damped Oscillation in an RLC circuit
(3 of 5)

To analyze the oscillations of this circuit, we write an

equation for the total electromagnetic energy U in the
circuit at any instant. Because the resistance does not store
electromagnetic energy, we can write
Li 2 q 2
U U B  U E   .
2 2C

Now, however, this total energy decreases as energy is

transferred to thermal energy. The rate of that transfer is,
dU
 i 2 R,
dt
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 20
31-2 Damped Oscillation in an RLC circuit
(4 of 5)

where the minus sign indicates that U decreases. By

differentiating U with respect to time and then substituting
the result we eventually get,
d 2q dq 1
L 2  R  q 0
dt dt C
which is the differential equation for damped oscillations
in an RLC circuit.

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 21

31-2 Damped Oscillation in an RLC circuit
(5 of 5)

Charge Decay. The solution to above Equation is in which

cos  t   
Rt

q Qe 2L

1
    2
 
R 2
2L and   .
LC

A series RLC circuit. As the charge contained

in the circuit oscillates back and forth through
the resistance, electromagnetic energy is
dissipated as thermal energy, damping
(decreasing the amplitude of) the oscillations.
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 22
31-3 Forced Oscillations of Three Simple
Circuits (1 of 14)
Learning Objectives
31.19 Distinguish alternating current from direct current.
31.20 For an ac generator, write the emf as a function of
time, identifying the emf amplitude and driving
angular frequency.
31.21 For an ac generator, write the current as a function
of time, identifying its amplitude and its phase
constant with respect to the emf.
31.22 Draw a schematic diagram of a (series) RLC circuit
that is driven by a generator.
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 23
31-3 Forced Oscillations of Three Simple
Circuits (2 of 14)
31.23 Distinguish driving angular frequency d from
natural angular frequency .
31.24 In a driven (series) RLC circuit, identify the
conditions for resonance and the effect of
resonance on the current amplitude.
31.25 For each of the three basic circuits (purely resistive
load, purely capacitive load, and purely inductive
load), draw the circuit and sketch graphs and
phasor diagrams for voltage v(t) and current i(t).

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 24

31-3 Forced Oscillations of Three Simple
Circuits (3 of 14)
31.26 For the three basic circuits, apply equations for
voltage v(t) and current i(t).
31.27 On a phasor diagram for each of the basic circuits,
identify angular speed, amplitude, projection on the
vertical axis, and rotation angle.
31.28 For each basic circuit, identify the phase constant,
and interpret it in terms of the relative orientations
of the current phasor and voltage phasor and also in
terms of leading and lagging.

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 25

31-3 Forced Oscillations of Three Simple
Circuits (4 of 14)
31.29 Apply the mnemonic “ELI positively is the ICE
man.”
31.30 For each basic circuit, apply the relationships
between the voltage amplitude V and the current
amplitude I.
31.31 Calculate capacitive reactance XC and inductive
reactance XL.

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 26

31-3 Forced Oscillations of Three Simple
Circuits (5 of 14)
Why ac? The basic advantage of alternating current is this: As
the current alternates, so does the magnetic field that surrounds
the conductor. This makes possible the use of Faraday’s law of
induction, which, among other things, means that we can step
up (increase) or step down (decrease) the magnitude of an
alternating potential difference at will, using a device called a
transformer, as we shall discuss later. Moreover, alternating
current is more readily adaptable to rotating machinery such as
generators and motors than is (nonalternating) direct current.

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 27

31-3 Forced Oscillations of Three Simple
Circuits (6 of 14)
Forced Oscillations
Whatever the natural angular frequency  of a circuit may
be, forced oscillations of charge, current, and potential
difference in the circuit always occur at the driving
angular frequency d .

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 28

31-3 Forced Oscillations of Three Simple
Circuits (7 of 14)
The basic mechanism of an
alternating-current generator is a
conducting loop rotated in an external
magnetic field. In practice, the
alternating emf induced in a coil of
many turns of wire is made accessible
by means of slip rings attached to the
rotating loop. Each ring is connected
to one end of the loop wire and is
electrically connected to the rest of
the generator circuit by a conducting
brush against which the ring slips as
the loop (and ring) rotates.
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 29
31-3 Forced Oscillations of Three Simple
Circuits (8 of 14)
Resistive Load
The alternating potential difference across a resistor has amplitude
VR  I R R resistor .
where VR and IR are the amplitudes of alternating current iR and
alternating potential difference vr across the resistance in the
circuit.

A resistor is connected across an

alternating-current generator.

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 30

31-3 Forced Oscillations of Three Simple
Circuits (9 of 14)
Angular speed: Both current and potential difference phasors
rotate counterclockwise about the origin with an angular
speed equal to the angular frequency d of vR and iR.
Length: The length of each phasor represents the amplitude of
the alternating quantity: VR for the voltage and IR for the
current.
Projection: The projection of each phasor on the vertical axis
represents the value of the alternating quantity at time t: vR for
the voltage and iR for the current.
Rotation angle: The rotation angle of each phasor is equal to
the phase of the alternating quantity at time t.
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 31
31-3 Forced Oscillations of Three Simple
Circuits (10 of 14)

(a) The current iR and the potential difference vR across the

resistor are plotted on the same graph, both versus time t.
They are in phase and complete one cycle in one period T. (b)
A phasor diagram shows the same thing as (a).
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 32
31-3 Forced Oscillations of Three Simple
Circuits (12 of 14)
A capacitor is connected across
an alternating-current generator.

Fig. (left), shows that the

quantities iC and vC are 90° out
of phase. In this case, however,
iC leads vC; that is, monitoring
the current iC and the potential
difference vC in the circuit of
figure shows that iC reaches its
(a)The current in the capacitor leads
the voltage by 90° ( = π/2 rad). (b) A maximum value after vC does,
phasor diagram shows the same thing. by one-quarter cycle.
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 33
31-3 Forced Oscillations of Three Simple
Circuits (13 of 14)
Inductive Load
The inductive reactance of an inductor is defined as
1
XC 
d C

Its value depends not only on the inductance but also on

the driving angular frequency d .
The voltage amplitude and current amplitude are related
by
VC  I C X C

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 34

31-3 Forced Oscillations of Three Simple
Circuits (14 of 14)
An inductor is connected across
an alternating-current generator.

In the phasor diagram we see

that iC leads vC, which means
that, if you monitored the
current iC and the potential
difference vC in the circuit
above, you would find that iC
reaches its maximum before vC
(a)The current in the inductor lags the
voltage by 90° ( = π/2 rad). (b) A does, by one-quarter cycle.
phasor diagram shows the same thing.
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 35
31-3 Forced Oscillations of Three Simple
Circuits (11 of 14)
Inductive Load
The inductive reactance of an inductor is defined as
X L d L

Its value depends not only on the inductance but also on

the driving angular frequency d .
The voltage amplitude and current amplitude are related
by
VL I L X L

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 36

31-4 The Series RLC Circuits (1 of 7)
Learning Objectives
31.32 Draw the schematic diagram of a series RLC circuit.
31.33 Identify the conditions for a mainly inductive circuit, a
mainly capacitive circuit, and a resonant circuit.
31.34 For a mainly inductive circuit, a mainly capacitive
circuit, and a resonant circuit, sketch graphs for voltage
v(t) and current i(t) and sketch phasor diagrams,
indicating leading, lagging, or resonance.
31.35 Calculate impedance Z.

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 37

31-4 The Series RLC Circuits (2 of 7)
31.36 Apply the relationship between current amplitude I,
impedance Z, and emf amplitude.
31.37 Apply the relationships between phase constant  and
voltage amplitudes VL and VC, and also between phase
constant  , resistance R, and reactances XL and XC.
31.38 Identify the values of the phase constant 
corresponding to a mainly inductive circuit, a mainly
capacitive circuit, and a resonant circuit.

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 38

31-4 The Series RLC Circuits (3 of 7)
31.39 For resonance, apply the relationship between the
driving angular frequency d , the natural angular
frequency  , the inductance L, and the capacitance C.
31.40 Sketch a graph of current amplitude versus the ratio
d
 , identifying the portions corresponding to a
mainly inductive circuit, a mainly capacitive circuit,
and a resonant circuit and indicating what happens to
the curve for an increase in the resistance.

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 39

31-4 The Series RLC Circuits (4 of 7)
For a series RLC circuit with an
external emf given by

E Em sin d t

The current is given by

i  I sin d t   

Series RLC circuit with an

external emf
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 40
31-4 The Series RLC Circuits (5 of 7)
the current amplitude is given by
Em
I .
R  X L  XC 
2 2

The denominator in the above equation is called the

Z of the circuit for the driving angular frequency d .
impedance
Z  R2   X L  X C 
2

If we substitute the value of XL and XC in the equation for

current (I), the equation becomes:
Em
I
 
2
R 2  d L  1
d C

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 41

31-4 The Series RLC Circuits (6 of 7)

Series RLC circuit with an external emf

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 42
31-4 The Series RLC Circuits (7 of 7)
From the right-hand phasor triangle in Figure (d) we can write

V V IX  IX C X L  XC
tan   L C  L , tan   Phase Constant
VR IR R

The current amplitude I is maximum when the driving

angular frequency d equals the natural angular frequency 
of the circuit, a condition known as resonance. Then X C  X L ,
 0, and the current is in phase with the emf.
1
d   resonance .
LC
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 43
31-5 Power in Alternating-Current Circuits
(1 of 5)

Learning Objectives
31.41 For the current, voltage, and emf in an ac circuit, apply
the relationship between the rms values and the
amplitudes.
31.42 For an alternating emf connected across a capacitor, an
inductor, or a resistor, sketch graphs of the sinusoidal
variation of the current and voltage and indicate the
peak and rms values.
31.43 Apply the relationship between average power Pavg,
rms current Irms, and resistance R.
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 44
31-5 Power in Alternating-Current Circuits
(2 of 5)

31.44 In a driven RLC circuit, calculate the power dissipated

by each element.
31.45 For a driven RLC circuit in steady state, explain what
happens to (a) the value of the average stored energy
with time and (b) the energy that the generator puts
into the circuit.
31.46 Apply the relationship between the power factor cos  ,
the resistance R, and the impedance
Z.

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 45

31-5 Power in Alternating-Current Circuits
(3 of 5)

The instantaneous rate at which energy is dissipated in the

resistor can be written as

2
P i R  I sin d t    R I 2 R sin 2 d t   .
2

Over one complete cycle, the average value of sin , where

 is any variable, is zero (Fig. a) but the average value of
sin 2  is 12 Thus the power is given by

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 46

31-5 Power in Alternating-Current Circuits
(4 of 5)

(a) A plot of sin  versus  . The average value over one cycle is zero.
1
(b) A plot of sin 
2
versus  . The average value over one cycle is .
2

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 47

31-5 Power in Alternating-Current Circuits
(5 of 5)

The quantity I2 is called the root-mean-square, or rms,

value of the current i:
I 2
I rms  Pavg I rms R
2

We can also define rms values of voltages and emfs for

alternating-current circuits:
V Em
Vrms  and Erms 
2 2

In a series RLC circuit, the average power Pavg of the generator is

equal to the production rate of thermal energy in the resistor:
Pavg Erms I rms cos 
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 48
31-6 Transformers (1 of 6)
Learning Objectives
31.49 For power transmission lines, identify why the
transmission should be at low current and high
voltage.
31.50 Identify the role of transformers at the two ends of
a transmission line.
31.51 Calculate the energy dissipation in a transmission
line.
31.52 Identify a transformer’s primary and secondary.

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 49

31-6 Transformers (2 of 6)
31.53 Apply the relationship between the voltage and
number of turns on the two sides of a transformer.
31.54 Distinguish between a step-down transformer and a
step-up transformer.
31.55 Apply the relationship between the current and
number of turns on the two sides of a transformer.
31.56 Apply the relationship between the power into and
out of an ideal transformer.

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 50

31-6 Transformers (3 of 6)
31.57 Identify the equivalent resistance as seen from the
primary side of a transformer.
31.58 Apply the relationship between the equivalent
resistance and the actual resistance.
31.59 Explain the role of a transformer in impedance
matching.

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 51

31-6 Transformers (4 of 6)
A transformer (assumed to be ideal) is an iron core on
which are wound a primary coil of Np turns and a
secondary coil of Ns turns. If the primary coil is connected
across an alternating-current generator, the primary and
secondary voltages are related by

Ns
Vs V p
Np

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 52

31-6 Transformers (5 of 6)
Energy Transfers. The rate at which the generator transfers
energy to the primary is equal to IpVp. The rate at which the
primary then transfers energy to the secondary (via the
alternating magnetic field linking the two coils) is IsVs.
Because we assume that no energy is lost along the way,
conservation of energy requires that
Np
I pV p I sVs I s I p
Ns
The equivalent resistance of the secondary circuit, as seen by
the generator, is 2
N 
Rep  p  R.
 Ns 
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 53
31-6 Transformers (6 of 6)

An ideal transformer (two coils wound on an iron core) in a basic

transformer circuit. An ac generator produces current in the coil at
the left (the primary). The coil at the right (the secondary) is
connected to the resistive load R when switch S is closed.
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 54
Summary (1 of 8)
LC Energy Transfer
• In an oscillating LC circuit, instantaneous values of the
two forms of energy are
q2 Li 2 Equation (31-
UE  and U B 
2C 2 1&2)

LC Charge and Current Oscillations

• The principle of conservation of energy leads to
d 2q  Equation (31-11)
L 2  q 0
dt C
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 55
Summary (2 of 8)
• The solution of Equation 31-11 is

q Q cos t    Equation (31-

12)

• the angular frequency v of the oscillations is

1
 . Equation (31-4)
LC

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 56

Summary (3 of 8)
Damped Oscillations
• Oscillations in an LC circuit are damped when a
dissipative element R is also present in the circuit. Then
d 2q dq 1
L 2 R  q 0 Equation (31-
dt dt C 24)

• The solution of this differential equation is

 Rt
q Qe 2L
cos  t   , Equation (31-
25)

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 57

Summary (4 of 8)
Alternating Currents; Forced Oscillations
• A series RLC circuit may be set into forced oscillation at
a driving angular frequency by an external alternating
emf
E Em sin d t. Equation (31-
28)

• The current driven in the circuit is

i  I sin d t    Equation (31-

29)
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 58
Summary (5 of 8)
Series RLC Circuits
• For a series RLC circuit with an alternating external emf
and a resulting alternating current,
Em
I 
R2   X L  X C 
2

Equation (31-60&63)
Em

2
 1 
R 2   d L  C
  d 

• and the phase constant is,

XL  Xc Equation (31-65)
tan  
R
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 59
Summary (6 of 8)
• The impedance is

Z  R2   X L  X C 
2
Equation (31-
61)

Power
• In a series RLC circuit, the average power of the
generator is,

2
Pavg  I rms R Erms I rms cos  . Equation (31-
71&76)
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 60
Summary (7 of 8)
Transformers
• Primary and secondary voltage in a transformer is
related by
Ns
Vs V p Equation (31-
Np 79)

• The currents through the coils,

Np
I s I p Equation (31-80)
Ns
Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 61
Summary (8 of 8)
• The equivalent resistance of the secondary circuit, as
seen by the generator, is
2
 Np 
Rep   R, Equation (31-
 Ns  82)

Copyright ©2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 62