D 3.

3 Homeostasis
“How are constant internal conditions
maintained in humans?”

“What are the benefits to organisms of

maintaining constant internal conditions?”
Learning Objectives
Variables are kept within preset limits, despite fluctuations in external
Homeostasis as maintenance
environment. Include body temperature, blood pH, blood glucose
D3.3.1 of the internal environment
concentration and blood osmotic concentration as homeostatic variables in
of an organism
humans.
Students should understand the reason for use of negative rather than
Negative feedback loops in positive feedback control in homeostasis and also that negative feedback
D3.3.2
homeostasis returns homeostatic variables to the set point from values above and below
the set point.
Regulation of blood glucose Include control of secretion of insulin and glucagon by pancreatic endocrine
D3.3.3 as an example of the role of cells, transport in blood and the effects on target cells.
hormones in homeostasis
Physiological changes that Students should understand the physiological changes, together with risk
D3.3.4 form the basis of type 1 and factors and methods of prevention and treatment.
type 2 diabetes
Thermoregulation as an Include the roles of peripheral thermoreceptors, the hypothalamus and
D3.3.5 example of negative pituitary gland, thyroxin and also examples of muscle and adipose tissue
feedback control that act as effectors of temperature change.
Students should appreciate that birds and mammals regulate their body
temperature by physiological and behavioural means. Students are only
Thermoregulation
D3.3.6 required to understand the details of thermoregulation for humans.
mechanisms in humans
Include vasodilation, vasoconstriction, shivering, sweating, uncoupled
respiration in brown adipose tissue and hair erection.
Homeostasis as maintenance of the internal environment
Homeostasis is the ability to Which factors
maintain a constant internal
environment at preset values
must stay “the

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despite fluctuations from the same” inside
external environment. the body to
It works by monitoring levels maintain a
of variables and making steady state?
corrections by negative
feedback mechanisms.
Homeostasis as maintenance of the internal environment
Negative feedback loops in homeostasis
All homeostatic functions of an organism are under control of a feedback loop,
which uses information about the outcome of a process to make adjustments.

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Positive Feedback Negative Feedback

Positive feedback amplifies their initiating Negative feedback counteracts changes of

stimuli - they move the system away from its various properties from their target value (set
starting state. Only few examples exist in the points). They form the basis of homeostatic
human body (e.g. During the menstrual cycle control systems used to keep internal conditions
release of FSH stimulates follicle growth within narrow limits. They require energy but
which in turn stimulates FSH release) keep the body at stable conditions.
Negative feedback loops in homeostasis

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Homeostasis is controlled by
negative feedback. This is the
type of control in which
conditions are brought back to a
set value as soon as it is detected
that they have deviated from it.
Regulation of blood glucose
Transport of glucose from the digestive tract and insulin from the
pancreas to all cells is a key function of the blood circulation.

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 Regulation of blood glucose

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Negative feedback
control ensures that the
blood sugar level is
maintained at a steady
concentration. In human
blood a set value of
around 90mg/100ml
blood is normal.

ause the blood sugar level to drop above or

Hyperglycemia increases the

blood pressure. Why?
Regulation of blood glucose
Blood sugar levels are adjusted by two hormones: Insulin and Glucagon, which are
produced in pancreatic cells (Langerhans islets) of hormone-secreting glands
(endocrine glands). The hormones are transported in the body by the blood to
reach their target cells. The Langerhans islets contain two types of cell, α cells
(releases glucagon) and β cells (releases insulin).

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Regulation of blood glucose
Insulin and glucagon are released by endocrine glands. Because the
pancreas has multiple functions, it is important to distinguish between
endocrine and exocrine glands.

exocrine

An exocrine
gland is a gland
which releases
its products into endocrine
a duct (e.g.
digestive An endocrine gland is
enzymes from a gland which secretes
the pancreas or products (e.g.
in the stomach hormones from
wall, sweat ovaries/testes,
glands, salivary hypothalamus,
glands,…) pituitary gland) into
the bloodstream.
Regulation of blood glucose

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 Regulation of blood glucose
Annotate the diagram:
In muscle and tissues…
Release of…

Detected by…
In the liver…
Blood glucose levels
Start here

glucose levels now…

In the liver… Detected by…

Release of…
 Regulation of blood glucose
Insulin and Glucagon reach different target cells. Describe the effects they have.
Insulin causes migration of membrane
proteins and absorption into the cell

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 Regulation of blood glucose
Insulin and Glucagon reach different target cells. Describe the effects they have.
Glucagon causes breakdown of
polymer storage products in the liver

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Physiological changes that form the basis of type 1
and type 2 diabetes
Diabetes is the condition in which a
person has consistently elevated blood

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glucose levels even during prolonged
fasting. This leads to the presence of
glucose in the urine.

There are two main types of diabetes:

Type I Type II
diabete diabetes
s (late
(early onset)
 Physiological changes that form the basis of type 1
and type 2 diabetes

[Link] [Link]

Watch these
videos and note
down causes,
consequences
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Type I & Type II diabetes: Causes & Risk factors
A diabetic is a person whose body is failing to regulate blood glucose levels correctly.

Type I diabetes (early-onset): Type II diabetes (late-onset):

Results from a failure of insulin production by Is the inability to process or respond to
the β cells due to an autoimmune disease insulin due to a deficiency of insulin receptors
which destroys the beta cells in the pancreas. or glucose transporters on target cells.
Caused by genetics, environmental, auto- Caused by lifestyle (sugary, fatty diet, obesity
immune factors not well understood. and lack of exercise), genetics (affecting
energy metabolism), aging.
Symptoms are increased thirst & urination,
kidney failure, constant hunger, weight loss, Symptoms are mild, fatigue, slow healing.
blurred vision, nerve damage. Usually blood sugar levels are high, only
receptors are defective.
It affects children and young people.
It affects older people.
Type I & Type II diabetes: Treatment
Type I diabetes (early-onset): Type II diabetes (late-onset):
• Treatment includes injections, oral • Treatment includes diet and exercise,
medicine, diet and exercise, blood blood glucose monitoring. Sometimes
glucose monitoring. insulin injections and oral medicine.
• Injections are mostly done before a • Sugar food should be avoided, starchy

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meal to prevent a peak of blood food only with low glycemic index
glucose when food is digested. (indicating that it is digested slowly).
Thermoregulation – control of body temperature
Thermoregulation is control of core body temperature to keep it close
to a set point (which might differ at different times of the day, year,
organism, etc.) Negative feedback is the basis of thermoregulation.

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Body temperature is monitored by peripheral
thermoreceptors in the skin and by central
thermoreceptors in the core of the body and
hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is also the
regulatory part, taking in information from
thermoreceptors and initiating responses.
Thermoregulation – control of body temperature
Some organs are more
Heat is generated by
metabolically active (like the
metabolism in cells. Heat
heart and kidneys, lungs and
is then distributed by the
brain, from which over 70%
blood circulation. of the body heat emerges)
Thermoregulation – control of body temperature
The metabolic rate can be decreased or lowered to adjust the amount of
heat generated. To increase the metabolic rate, the hypothalamus
secretes thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH), which activates the
pituitary gland to release thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), which in
turn stimulates thyroxin (T4) production by the thyroid gland.

Thyroxin in the blood circulation stimulates

oxygen consumption and increases the metabolic
reactions that generate heat as a waste product.
Thermoregulation – control of body temperature
The target cells for tyroxin are muscles,
brain, heart, liver and white and brown
adipose tissue which respond accordingly.
 Thermoregulation – control of body temperature
Specifically, brown adipose
tissue is thermogenic and
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can generate heat at a rapid

rate by oxidizing lipids.

Small mammals and

newborn babies have larger
quantities of this type of
adipose tissue, as they are
particularly prone to heat
loss due to their large SA:V
ratio.

White adipose tissue rather

stores lipids and
contributes to insulation.
Thermoregulation – control of body temperature
In humans, body temperature is
controlled by the thermoregulatory
centre in the hypothalamus.

Using the
diagram, explain
how body
temperature is
adjusted.
Thermoregulation – control of body temperature
What mechanisms has the body developed in order to
respond to an increased core temperature?
Sweating, dilation of blood vessels (vasodilation),
Behavioral adaptations (taking off clothes), hydration
(drinking)

How does sweating allow for a decrease in

temperature? Explain:

Water molecules are held together by hydrogen bonds –

When bonds are breaking in the process of evaporation,
energy is required. Energy taken to break these bonds is
removed from the body  temperature reduced.

How does vasodilation (the widening of blood vessels)

allow for lowering body temperature?
Blood vessels become wider and move closer to the skin’s
surface resulting in heat to be transported away easier
(conduction & convection)

How does vasoconstriction (the narrowing of blood

vessels) allow for increasing body temperature?
Blood vessels become more narrow and deeply burried inside the
muscle tissue – this will remove the blood flow from the surface of
the skin, and therefore reduce heat loss through the skin.