Unit 2 – Biological
Development
A. Biological Beginnings – Francden Agus
B. Physical and Motor Development – Carmella Camino
C. Neuroscience and Brain Development – Jenny Rose Camacho
D. Factors Affecting Biological/Physical Development – Christine
Joy Belmin
E. Theories – Lito Bacuño
• Developmental Milestones (Gesell)
• Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner)
F. Current Research and Pedagogical Applications – Lito Bacuño
Learning Objectives
• Explain the key concepts of Biological development, including
physical and motor development.
• Describe the connection between neuroscience and brain
development.
• Identify and discuss the various factors that influence biological
development.
• Compare and contrast different theories of development, such as
Developmental Milestones Theory (Gesell) and the Ecological
Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner).
• Apply current research and pedagogical applications to real-world
scenarios.
Biological Development
can be generally defined as dynamical process.
A study of the process by which means to grow or develop. Like,
progressive changes in size, shape and functions.
Biological Beginnings
1. Natural Selection & Adaptive
Behavior
• Natural selection is the evolutionary
process by which those individuals of a
species that are best adapted are the
ones that survive and reproduce.
• Charles Darwin wrote On the Origin of
Species (1859); Only the strong
survive.
• Adaptive Behavior that promotes an
organism’s survival in the habitat.
Biological Beginnings
2. Evolutionary Psychology
• Evolutionary Psychology – Emphasizes the importance of
adaptation, reproduction & “Survival of the fittest” in
shaping behavior.
• David Buss points out that just as evolution shapes our
physical features, such as body shape & height, it also
pervasively influences how we make decisions, how
aggressive we are, our fears, & our mating pattern.
• Evolutionary Developmental Psychology – An extended
childhood period evolved because humans require time to
develop a large brain & learn the complexity of human
society.
• Evaluating Evolutionary Psychology – Bidirectional view: in
which environmental & biological conditions influence each
other.
Genetic Foundations of Development
• The Collaborative Gene – These are genes
that present in the chromosomes shows
intergenic interaction.
• Chromosomes – Threadlike structures that
come in 23 pairs, one member of each pair
coming from each parent. Chromosomes
contain the genetic substance DNA.
• DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) – A complex
molecule with a double helix shape that
contains genetic information.
• Genes – Units of hereditary information
composed of short segments of DNA. Genes
direct cells to reproduce themselves &
manufacture the proteins that maintain life.
Genes & Chromosome
• Mitosis – Cellular reproduction in which
the cell’s nucleus duplicates itself with 2
new cells being formed, each containing
the same DNA as the parent call,
arranged in the same 23 pairs of
chromosomes.
• Meiosis – A specialized form of cell
division that occurs to form eggs & sperm
(or gametes) each of which contains only
½ of the parent cell’s genetic material.
• Fertilization – A stage in reproduction
whereby an egg & a sperm fuse to create
a single cell, called a zygote.
• Zygote – A single cell formed through
fertilization.
Source of Variability
Three stages of prenatal development
• Germinal Stage (Zygote) – the
combination of the chromosomes
of the female ovum and male
sperm (2 to 3 weeks).
• Embryonic Stage (Embryo) –
during this phase, the little one
will start to develop and form
some body features and organs (2
to 3 weeks).
• Fetal Stage (Fetus) – in this
phase, the little one will start to
develop sensory abilities, brain
structures and vital organs (9
weeks until birth).
The Birth Process
The Stages of Birth
• Stage 1: Contractions
• Stage 2: The Baby gets out of
the womb
• Stage 3: After Birth care;
placenta and umbilical cord
removal.
Types of Delivery
• Natural Childbirth
• Caesarean sections
Physical and Motor Development
Human Development Concepts
• Growth - increase in body
size and weight (quantitative
changes).
• Development - gradual
progress in skills and
functions (qualitative
changes).
• Maturation - natural
readiness for higher-level
abilities.
Physical Growth and
Development:
- It is the growth and changes in the body and brain,
including increasing size, strength, and the ability to use
muscles and senses. It encompasses overall body
growth, coordination, and sensory development.
Six Stages of Physical
Development:
• Newborn (0–1 month): About 20 inches long and weighs 5 to 9 pounds. Tooth development has already
started before birth, with tooth buds forming around 11 weeks of fetal growth, and permanent teeth beginning
to develop as well.
• Infant (0–1 year):Between one and twelve months, infants grow rapidly, gaining about 10 inches in height
and doubling their birth weight by 4 to 7 months with an average weekly gain of 5 to 7 ounces. By their first
birthday, their birth weight typically triples. Teething usually begins around six months, starting with the lower
central incisors, followed by the upper central incisors, and many infants have about six teeth by age one.
• Toddler (1–3 years): Between one and three years, physical growth slows to a steady pace, with height
increasing about 5 inches per year and weight gaining 4.5 to 6.5 pounds annually. Bone development
continues, and by age two, all 20 primary teeth have usually appeared.
• Preschooler (3–6 years): Between three and six years of age, children are commonly referred to as
"preschoolers" for the purpose of child development discussions. Although Philippine schools use terms like
"preschool," "junior kindergarten," and "senior kindergarten," many six-year-olds are already in grade one.
• School-age (6–12 years): From six to twelve years, children grow steadily, about 2 inches per year until
puberty, when a major growth spur occurs. Girls gain around 30 pounds and boys 52 pounds on average. They
gain independence, with emotional growth and learning good values guided by parents and teachers. Bone
development continues.
• Adolescent (12–18 years): From 13 to 18 years, teens experience major physical and emotional changes,
shaping their identity. Girls start puberty earlier than boys, with an earlier growth spurt and menstruation.
Boys’ growth spurt occurs later but lasts longer. Both develop secondary sexual traits, and brain development
continues into the mid to late twenties.
Brain and Motor Development
Connection:
• - The brain controls movement by sending signals
through nerves from the motor cortex to muscles,
telling them when and how to move. This coordination
allows precise and smooth physical actions.
Brain Development:
• - The human brain starts developing around the third
week after conception and keeps growing into late
adolescence, with some changes continuing throughout
life. Brain development is a complex process influenced
by gene activity and environmental factors, involving
the growth and connection of brain cells. Also, our
brains grow bigger as we grow.
Motor Development
- means the physical growth
and strengthening of a
child’s bones, muscles and
ability to move and touch
his/her surroundings. A
child’s motor development
falls into two categories:
• Gross motor skills - large
movements (walking,
running, jumping).
• Fine motor skills - small
movements (grasping,
writing, drawing).
Perception & Patterns by Stage
• Newborn (0–1 month): Reflexes, senses begin
working.
• Infant (0–1 year): Coordination of senses with
movement.
• Toddler (1–3 years): Improved balance and control.
• Preschooler (3–6 years):Can run, climb, and use tools
like crayons.
• School-age (6–12 years): Better coordination,
handwriting, sports skills.
• Adolescent (13–18 years): Adult-like strength,
precision, and endurance
Neuroscience and Brain Development
What is Neuroscience?
• It deals with the structure
or function of the nervous
system and brain.
• Also known as Neural
Science
Neuroscientist - Focus on the brain and its impact on behavior
and cognitive functions
Branches of Neuroscience
• Affective Neuroscience – emotions
• Behavioral Neuroscience – behavior
• Cellular neuroscience – neurons at cellular
level
• Clinical Neuroscience – disorders of the
nervous system
The Brain’s Composition
• Growth of the brain occurs
from the inside out and the
bottom up.
• You are born with 100 billion
brain cells .
• There are 15,000 synaptic
connections for each cell.
The Human Brain
Frontal lobe - voluntary
movement, thinking, and
personality
Parietal lobe - speech,
language, attention, sensation,
motor control
Occipital Lobe - Vision
Temporal Lobe - hearing,
language and memory
processing
Early Childhood
• Rapid change of brain
• Process of myelination continue
and brain size increase
• Brain Plasticity
• Flexible and prepared to learn
• Blooming and Pruning
3 years old
• Most rapid changes due to bombardment of
experiences
• Brain is 3/4 of adult size
• 1090 grams for female brain
• 1270 grams for male brain
Early Childhood
4 years old
• Brain increases 80% of adult size
• Temporal Lobe (auditory myelination is complete)
5 years Old
• Occipital lobe reaches adult levels
Effects of Neglect and/ or abuse
• The frontal lobe develops improperly when deprived of
affection and positive emotional experiences.
• Lack of stimulation causes neurons in the brain to die off.
Middle Childhood
• 95% of brain growth is of neurons by time a child reaches the
age of 9.
• Growth is characterized by interrelated process namely: Cell
proliferation and cell pruning.
• Cell proliferation – The over productions of neurons connection.
• Cell Pruning – Is a continuous process in the childhood phase.
• Is the ability identifying and act a relationship between objects
in space.
Lateralization of spatial perception
• Spatial Perception - is the ability to be aware of your
relationships with the environment around you (exteroceptive
processes) and with yourself (interoceptive processes).
Middle Childhood
Brain volume stabilize
• Weight: 1440 grams in male
• 1260 grams in female
6-7 years old
• maturation of occipital lobe
• Contrast sensitivity and peripheral vision
reach adult level
8 years old
• maturation of temporal lobe.
• Brain maintains flexible for future learning.
Adolescence
• Transition from childhood to adulthood
• Social, psychological and emotional changes accompany by
puberty Selective pruning takes place
• Frontal lobe loses 3%
• Myelination- allows to operate more efficiency
Emotional Control
• Amygdala- Holds emotional memory
- develops before frontal develops
Adolescence
Brain undergoes structural changes
• Age 12 - Parietal Lobe mature
• Corpus callosum nerve fibers connect the brain's left and right
hemispheres thickens, improves adolescents' ability to process
information.
• Synapses at adult density
• 18-25 years: Frontal Lobe/ Prefrontal cortex matures
Factors Affecting
Biological/Physical Development
Physical development involves the changes in the body, brain,
motor skills, senses, and the wellness of an individual. It refers to
the growth and development of body parts. Childhood is the period
when most of the physical development takes place.
Factors that affect Biological and Physical Development
1. Heredity
• Heredity refers to the transfer of
genes or physical traits from
parents to children.
• It plays a major role in
influencing the physical
development of a child such as
their weight, height, eye color,
hair color, body structure, and
diseases are involve.
Factors that affect Biological and Physical Development
2. Gender
• The gender of the child also plays a
crucial role in their physical development.
• Boys grow up differently than girls
especially during puberty. Temperaments
and interests may vary.
3. Health and Exercise
• In the context of childhood, exercise does
not refer to working out but to playtime
activities and games that help the body
develop muscular strength.
• A stronger body can have better chance
to fighting off disease.
Factors that affect Biological and Physical Development
4. Nutrition
• Nutrition is critical in influencing the physical
development of a child.
• Proper nutrition is necessary because it builds and
repairs the body.
• Lack of proper nutrition can cause a deficiency
among children affecting their physical
development negatively. Therefore, a balanced
diet is important.
5. Hormones
• Hormones have an influence over various parts of
the body.
• Different glands produce hormones and their
proper functioning is essential to ensure normal
physical development in children. Hormonal
Factors that affect Biological and Physical Development
6. Socio-Economic Status
• Children require proper nutrition,
nourishment, and nurture when growing
up. Without proper care, they may not be
able to have proper physical
development.
• Children belonging to poor families may
not have the resources required for
proper physical development which may
cause them to have deficiencies.
7. Familial Influence
• Investing time, energy and love in the
family can lead to happy children who
have normal physical development.
Factors that affect Biological and Physical Development
8. Environment
• The development of a child also
depends on environmental factors.
• A child needs a proper and well-
nourished environment for proper
development. A child who is
nurtured in a caring environment will
have better physical development
over a childhood who is nurtured in a
stressful environment.
Factors that affect Biological and Physical Development
9. Learning and Reinforcement
• Learning involves much more than
schooling. It is also concerned with
building the child up mentally,
intellectually, emotionally, and
socially so they operate as healthy
functional individuals in the society.
• This is where the development of the
mind takes place and the child can
gain some maturity. Reinforcement is
a component of learning where an
activity or exercise is repeated and
refined to solidify the lessons learned.
Factors that affect Biological and Physical Development
10. Geographical Influence
• The geographical location
and climate of the place can
influence children bodily
rhythms, allergies, and other
health condition.
Theories
Developmental Milestones/Maturation
Theory (Gesell)
Arnold Gesell
• 1880-1961
• Born in Alma, Wisconsin.
• Strong proponent of
“maturational” perspective of
child development.
• “Age-Norms”
• He emphasized that children
develop individually at their
own pace.
• Every children follow the same
sequence
Two Major Forces that influence
Development
• Environment - affects the rate of
development.
• Genetics – teaches children how to
behave in a proper manner.
Development is affected by
personality and temperament, but
there is still sequence which you
cannot rush or skip.
Arnold Gesell said that “we should
measure growth in patterns of
what baby can do”.
Gesell’s Philosophy of child-reading
• You have to follow the child cues, to tell us the right time.
• Let the infant indicate when the baby is hungry (cry) and the baby
should be fed until the baby is satisfied.
By this way:
As to child- develops his/her own internal clock
As to parents- they will learn to trust that children indeed will
develop on his/her own pace.
In the end, Gesell emphasized that it is not the parents who are
shaping their children that it is an innate ability and children
have their own time table.
Adults should trust and appreciate the wonder growth, respect,
immaturity and avoid always planning what is next for the children.
Ecological Systems Theory
(Bronfenbrenner)
This theory present the child
development within the context
of relationship system that
comprise the child environment
Urie Bronfenbrenner – was a
Russian born, American
developmental psychologist.
He believed that a child is
affected by everything in
his/her environment. This
includes the varied systems of
the environment and the
interrelationships among the
systems that shape a child's
development.
Heredity (nature) and Environment (nurture)
act together to influence child development.
Ecological Systems Theory
(Bronfenbrenner)
In this theory , the child is embedded
within a complex series of interacting
layers that influence or affect
development. This model has five
subsystem.
1. Microsystem
• Layer nearest to the child.
• It consist of activities and interactions of
the child with his/her immediate
surroundings or with the closest to the
child, and one in which heshe has direct
contact with parents and family at
home, teachers and peers at school, or
caregivers at daycare.
Ecological Systems Theory
(Bronfenbrenner)
2. Mesosystem
• It includes connections or interactions between all the
microsystem related to the child.
• The mesosystem also includes other features of the people in a
child’s immediate surroundings like their socioeconomic status.
• If the elements of his/her microsystem are working together, there
is a positive influence on the child.
3. Exosystem
• This includes the social settings that do not contain the child but
still affect his/her experiences in his/her immediate settings.
• This can also affect the quality of relationship of the child with the
parent.
Ecological Systems Theory
(Bronfenbrenner)
4. Macrosystem
• This includes the cultural environment in
which a person lives in and all the other
systems that affect the child.
• It includes cultural values, customs,
traditions, laws, resources, or the economy
and the political system in a child’s country
• The macrosystem can have a negative or
positive effect on the development of the
child.
Ecological Systems Theory
(Bronfenbrenner)
5. Chronosystem
• This is all about the continuous influence of time on all other
subsystems and their interactions.
• Time influences child development in terms of physical, cognitive,
and personal characteristics. Time also influences developmental
challenges and opportunities that affect children.
• Other events affect the child like growing up during the great
depression, during a world war, during a global pandemic, or even
living through a natural disaster like a major earthquake, tsunami,
fire, or other event. This can affect his/her learning styles and
skills.
• In all subsystems, the presence of alcohol, tobacco, and drugs
could affect child’s development.
Current Research and Pedagogical Applications
Pedagogy - Most commonly understood as the approach to
teaching, is the theory and practice of learning, and how this
process influences, and is influenced by, the social, political and
psychological development of learners.
Pedagogy, taken as an academic discipline, is the study of how
knowledge and skills are imparted in an educational context, and
it considers the interactions that take place during learning.
Current Research and
Pedagogical Applications
A 2024 study by Nivard et al. found that indirect
genetic effects on children's academic
achievement are not just from parents' direct
genetic influence within the family (genetic
nurture), but are significantly explained by
"dynastic social processes," where families
transmit social advantages across generations
through social stratification rather than solely
within-family environmental mechanisms.
Reference: Nivard et al. 2024, More than Nature and Nurture, Indirect Genetic Effects on
Children’s Academic Achievement are consequences of Dynastic Social Processes
[Link]
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%20within%20the%20nuclear%20family.
Current Research and
Pedagogical Applications
Based on the studies conducted by Yang et al. 2019, the new
advances in neurobiology are revealing that brain development and
its learning were enables directly dependent on social-emotional
experience. Brain development is also impacted by health-related
and physical developmental factors, such as sleep, toxin exposure,
and puberty, which in turn influence social-emotional functioning and
cognition. Learning indeed depends on how nature is nurtured.
• Reference: Mary Helen Immordino-Yang et al. (2019) Nurturing Nature: How Brain
Development Is Inherently Social and Emotional, and What This Means for Education,
Educational Psychologist.
Cognitive Development
• Cognitive development is how humans acquire,
organize, and learn to use knowledge (Gauvain &
Richert, 2016). In psychology, the focus of
cognitive development has often been only on
childhood. However, cognitive development
continues through adolescence and adulthood. It
involves acquiring language and knowledge,
thinking, memory, decision making, problem
solving, and exploration (Von Eckardt, 1996).
Much of the research within cognitive
development in children focuses on thinking,
developing knowledge, exploring, and solving
problems (Carpendale & Lewis, 2015).
• Cognitive development means how children
think, explore and figure things out. It is the
development of knowledge, skills, problem
solving and dispositions, which help children to
Pedagogical Content
Knowledge(PCK)
• Pedagogical content knowledge is the
combining of pedagogy and subject
content knowledge which Shulman re-
emphasized in the 1980s.
• Lee Shulman was a teacher education
researcher who worked towards
expanding and improving knowledge
about teaching and teacher preparation.
He posited that simply developing
general pedagogical skills were
insufficient; he believed that the key to
distinguishing the knowledge base of
teaching rested at the intersection of
content and pedagogy. he established
pedagogical content knowledge as
teachers’ interpretations and
transformations of subject-matter
Key Elements of Pedagogical
Content Knowledge
Knowledge of Representations of Subject Matter
• Subject Matter Knowledge extends beyond knowing a lot about
something. It suggests that both educators and students think in a
disciplined manner that they can apply to a multitude of places
and situations.
• A teacher's understanding and expertise in the content area they
are teaching.
Understanding Of Students’ Conceptions of the Subject And
The Learning
• PCK illustrates how the subject matter of a particular discipline is
transformed for communication with learners. It includes
recognition of what makes specific topics difficult to learn, the
conceptions students bring to the learning of these concepts, and
teaching strategies tailored to this specific teaching situation.
Key Elements of Pedagogical
Content Knowledge
Curriculum Knowledge
• The purpose of the curriculum is to facilitate effective student
learning; it is much more than guiding them to learn specific
chapters in maths, science or literature.
• Reflects the national culture in which a school operates – different
countries have different expectations of their students, even if
teaching practices are similar.
Knowledge Of Educational Contexts
• Teachers indeed need to understand subject matter deeply and
flexibly so they can help students map their own ideas, relate one
idea to another, and re-direct their thinking to create powerful
learning.
• Provide students with plenty of opportunities to achieve learning
outcomes and develop the knowledge, skills and understandings
that are essential to all areas of the curriculum.
Knowledge of the Purpose of
Education
• Cocharan et. al. (1993) highlighted that Shulman’s concept of PCK
is stagnant and divided into various components; they remarked
that a teacher’s knowledge of teaching should be dynamic,
developing and continuously growing. Therefore, the revised
version that came to be known as pedagogical content knowing
PCKg outlined a few vital aspects of teacher education. It
emphasized:
• Subject matter knowledge
• Knowledge of pedagogy
• Knowledge of students
• Knowledge of environmental contexts
Early Childhood - Social and Emotional
Development
• Promoting Young Children's Social and
Emotional Health
Middle Childhood - Development of self and
social understandings
• Piaget (1952), focusing on children's
cognitive development, characterized middle
childhood as a time when children become
less egocentric and much more responsive to
the views of others.
• The DepEd Order No. 74 issued in 2009
institutionalized Mother Tongue-Based
Multilingual Education (MTB MLE) nationwide
and mandated the use of the learners'
mother tongue (MT) in improving learning
Adolescent - The adolescent must
develop expanded verbal skills
• As adolescents mature intellectually, as
they face increased school demands, and
as they prepare for adult roles, they must
develop new verbal skills to
accommodate more complex concepts
and tasks. Their limited language of
childhood is no longer adequate.
Higher education
• Higher education takes a much different
approach. The traditional lecture is still an
accepted teaching approach, especially in
large classes and the sciences. Many
students still spend their class hours
passively taking notes as the professor
talks.
New Normal Alternative Education
Thank You!
To God Be The Glory
