EE-604

INSTRUMENTATION
& MEASUREMENTS
CHAPTER No. 02

INSTRUMENT TYPES AND

PERFORMANCE
CHARACTERISTICS
DR. ABDUL
SATTAR MALIK
 CHAPTER No. 01
INTRODUCTION

1. Review of Instrument Types

2. Static Characteristics of
Instruments
3. Dynamic Characteristics of
Instruments
4. Necessity for Calibration
 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
Active and Passive Instruments
NuII-Type and Deflection-Type Instruments
Analogue and Digital Instruments
Indicating Instruments and Instruments with a Signal Output
Smart and Non-smart Instruments

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 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE INSTRUMENTS
Instruments are classified as active or passive based on how they
generate output.
Active Instruments:
 Require an external power source.
Passive Instruments:
 Output is entirely produced by the measured quantity.

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 PASSIVE INSTRUMENTS
The output is produced solely by the measured quantity.
 Example: Pressure gauge
 Fluid pressure moves a pointer against a scale.
 Energy comes only from pressure change.
Simple construction, cost-effective.

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 ACTIVE INSTRUMENTS
Uses an external power source to generate output.
 Example: Float-type petrol tank level indicator (Figure)
 Petrol level moves a potentiometer arm.
 Output is a fraction of an external voltage source.
External power can be electrical, pneumatic, or hydraulic.

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 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE INSTRUMENTS
Passive Instruments:
 Limited resolution due to mechanical constraints.
 Example: A longer pointer can increase resolution, but only to a practical
limit.
 Simpler construction, lower cost.
Active Instruments:
 Higher resolution control by adjusting external energy.
 However, constrained by heating effects and safety concerns.
 More complex, higher cost due to external power source and additional
components.

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 NUII-TYPE AND DEFLECTION-TYPE INSTRUMENTS

Deflection-type instruments
 The instruments in which the measured quantity produces physical effects
which deflect or displace the moving system of the instruments in known
as the deflection type instrument
Null-type instruments
 An instrument in which zero or null indication determines the magnitude
of measured quantity

Deflection-Type NuII-Type 8
 NUII-TYPE AND DEFLECTION-TYPE INSTRUMENTS

DEFLECTION-TYPE INSTRUMENTS
In the given example of Pressure Gauge with Pointer
 Measures pressure based on pointer movement
 Accuracy depends on spring linearity & calibration
 Easy and quick to read
 Commonly used in workplaces

NUII-TYPE INSTRUMENTS
In the given example of Dead-Weight Gauge
 Measures pressure using balanced weights
 Accuracy depends on weight calibration
 More precise than deflection-type instruments
 Requires effort to use but ensures accuracy
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 ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS
Analogue Instruments
 Analog instruments are mechanical devices that indicate the magnitude of
the quantity in the form of the pointer movement, and the value is read
according to markings on a scale.
Digital Instruments
 The instrument which represents the measured value in the form of the
digital number is known as the digital instruments.
 It works on the principle of quantization.
 The quantization is the process of converting the continuous input signal
into a countable output signal.

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 ANALOGUE INSTRUMENTS
In Analogue Instruments, Output varies continuously with the
measured quantity.
 Infinite number of possible values within the measurement range.
 Example: Deflection-type pressure gauge
 Pointer moves smoothly as the input changes.
 Infinite number of possible positions.
 Eye's ability to discriminate is limited by:
 Size of the scale
 Fineness of divisions

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 DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS
In Digital Instruments, Output varies continuously with the
measured quantity.
 Output varies in discrete steps.
 Only a finite number of possible values.
Example: Rev counter
 Cam attached to a revolving body.
 Switch opens/closes with each revolution.
 Electronic counter registers the count.
 Can only count whole revolutions.

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 ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS
Importance of Analogue vs. Digital
 Growth in microcomputers has made the distinction crucial.
 Digital instruments integrate directly with control systems.
 Analogue instruments require an Analogue-to-Digital (A/D) Converter.
Disadvantages of A/D Conversion
 Cost: Additional hardware increases system expense.
 Time Delay: Conversion process takes time.
 Accuracy Issues: Delay impacts precision in fast control systems.

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 INDICATING INSTRUMENTS AND
INSTRUMENTS WITH A SIGNAL OUTPUT
Indicating Instruments
 The instrument which indicates the magnitude of the measured quantity
is known as the indicating instrument.
Signal-Output Instruments
 The instrument which Provide a measurement signal proportional to the
measured quantity is known as the Signal- Output Instrument

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 INDICATING INSTRUMENTS
Provide an audio or visual representation of measurement data.
 Require human intervention to read and record data.
 Commonly include:
 Null-type instruments
 Most passive instruments

Types of Indicating Instruments

 Analogue Indicators:
Example: Liquid-in-glass thermometer
 Example: Mechanical bathroom scale (rotating pointer against a scale)

 Digital Indicators:
 Example: Electronic bathroom scale (numeric display)

Drawbacks of Indicating Instruments

 Human intervention is necessary.
 Analogue indicators are prone to reading errors.
 Digital displays reduce errors but still require careful reading. 15
 SIGNAL-OUTPUT INSTRUMENTS
Provide a measurement signal proportional to the
measured quantity.
 Commonly used in:
 Automatic
control systems
 Measurement systems with recorded data for later use

Forms of Measurement Signals

 Electrical voltage (most common)
 Electrical current
 Optical signal
 Pneumatic signal

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 SMART AND NON-SMART INSTRUMENTS
The advent of the microprocessor has created a new division in
instruments
Smart Instruments
 Instruments that do incorporate a microprocessor are known as smart
instruments.
Non-smart Instruments
 Instruments that don’t incorporate a microprocessor are known as non-
smart instruments.

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 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF
INSTRUMENTS
Instruments have various static characteristics that define their
performance.
Some important Characteristics of instruments are
Accuracy and Inaccuracy (Measurement Uncertainty)
Precision/ Repeatability/ Reproducibility
Tolerance
Range or Span
Linearity
Sensitivity of Measurement
Threshold
Resolution
Sensitivity to Disturbance
Hysteresis Effects
Dead Space 18
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF
INSTRUMENTS
Accuracy:
 Closeness of the output reading to the correct value.
Inaccuracy (or Measurement Uncertainty):
 The extent to which a reading may be incorrect.
Typically expressed as a percentage of the full-scale (f.s.) reading.
 Measurement error is usually related to the full-scale reading.
 If a small value is measured using a large-scale instrument, error impact is
amplified.
 Important system design rule: Choose instruments with appropriate
measurement ranges.
Example of Instrument Selection
 If measuring pressures between 0-1 bar:
 Do NOT use a 0-10 bar instrument.
 Use an instrument with a closer range for better accuracy.
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 PRECISION/ REPEATABILITY/
REPRODUCIBILITY
Precision is the degree of freedom from random errors in an
instrument.
 High precision means a small spread of readings for the same
measurement.
 Often confused with accuracy, but they are distinct concepts.
Precision vs. Accuracy
 Precision: Consistency of repeated measurements.
 Accuracy: Closeness of a measurement to the true value.
A high-precision instrument does not necessarily imply high
accuracy.

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 PRECISION/ REPEATABILITY/
REPRODUCIBILITY
Repeatability and Reproducibility
 Both describe the spread of output readings for the same input.
Repeatability: Same conditions maintained (observer, location,
instrument, etc.).
Reproducibility: Conditions vary (observer, instrument, location,
etc.).
Alternative Expression of Precision
Precision can be expressed in terms of repeatability and
reproducibility.
 Lower spread of readings indicates higher precision.

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 ILLUSTRATION OF PRECISION & ACCURACY
A diagram showing three industrial robots placing components.
 Concentric circles represent the target.
 Black dots indicate actual placements.
Precision is crucial for consistent measurements.
Accuracy ensures the correctness of the measurement.

(a) Low Precision, (b) High Precision, (c) High Precision,

Low accuracy Low accuracy High accuracy
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 TOLERANCE
Tolerance is defined as the maximum error expected in a value.
 Tolerance is closely related to accuracy.
Tolerance vs. Accuracy
 Accuracy refers to closeness to the true value.
 Tolerance defines acceptable deviation from a specified value.
Use in Measuring Instruments
 Not a static characteristic of instruments.
 Sometimes used to quote accuracy of an instrument.

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 TOLERANCE
Tolerance in Manufacturing
 Defines the maximum deviation of a manufactured component.
 Example: Crankshafts machined with a diameter tolerance in micrometers
(10⁶ m).
Tolerance in Electronics
 Resistors may have a tolerance of 5%.
 Ensures acceptable variations in component performance.

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 RANGE OR SPAN
The range or span of an instrument defines the minimum and
maximum values of a quantity that the instrument is designed to
measure.

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 RANGE OR SPAN
Linear Proportionality
 Instruments should ideally provide linearly proportional output to the
input quantity.
 This means the output should increase or decrease at a consistent rate
with changes in input.
Example of Instrument Output Readings
 Figure Explanation:
 Xs on the graph represent actual output readings for different input
values.
 The ideal response should be a straight line.
Best-Fit Line Approach
 A good fit straight line is drawn through the data points (Xs).
 This represents the ideal linear response.
 It can be done visually but is more accurate with a least-squares fitting
technique (will be explained later). 26
 LINEARITY
Linear Proportionality
 Instruments should ideally provide linearly
proportional output to the input quantity.
 This means the output should increase or decrease at
a consistent rate with changes in input.
Example of Instrument Output Readings
 Figure Explanation:
 Xs on the graph represent actual output readings for
different input values.
 The ideal response should be a straight line.
Best-Fit Line Approach
 A good fit straight line is drawn through the data
points (Xs).
 This represents the ideal linear response.
 It can be done visually but is more accurate with a
least-squares fitting technique (will be explained
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later).
 LINEARITY
Nonlinearity
 It is the Maximum deviation of any actual output (X) from the best-fit
straight line.
 Represents how much the instrument deviates from ideal behavior.
Importance of Nonlinearity Measurement
 Ensures the reliability of measurement instruments.
 Affects the precision of experiments and industrial applications.
 Important in calibration and quality control.
Conclusion
 Linear response is ideal but real instruments show some deviation.
 Nonlinearity is a key performance metric in instrument accuracy.
 Mathematical techniques (least-squares fitting) improve accuracy.

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 SENSITIVITY OF MEASUREMENT
The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the change in
instrument output that occurs when the quantity being
measured changes by a given amount. Thus, sensitivity is the
ratio:

The sensitivity of measurement is therefore the slope of the

straight line drawn.
 If, for example, a pressure of 2 bar produces a deflection of 10 degrees in a
pressure transducer
 Then the sensitivity of the instrument is 5 degrees/bar (assuming that the
deflection is zero with zero pressure applied).
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 THRESHOLD
Threshold is the minimum level of input that must be reached
for a detectable change in the instrument's output.
 Example: A car speedometer with a threshold of 15 km/h will not show
any output until the vehicle reaches this speed.
Threshold - Manufacturer Specifications
 Threshold Variations:
 Manufacturers may specify threshold in different ways:
 Absolute Value: A fixed value of input (e.g., 15 km/h).
 Percentage of Full-Scale (f.s.): A threshold as a percentage of the

instrument's maximum reading.

Why It Matters:
 This variation helps users understand how sensitive an instrument is to
small changes in input.

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 RESOLUTION
Resolution refers to the smallest detectable change in the input
that produces an observable change in output.
 Example: A car speedometer with a resolution of 5 km/h means you can
only estimate speed to the nearest 5 km/h, even if the needle is between
markings.
Resolution - Factors Affecting It
 Key Influencing Factors:
 Output Scale Divisions: The finer the divisions on the instrument scale, the
better the resolution.
Example: A speedometer with 20 km/h subdivisions means the
resolution is 5 km/h.

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 SENSITIVITY
Sensitivity refers to the changes in instrument characteristics
due to environmental variations.
 Key Factors: Temperature, pressure, humidity, etc.
 Impact: Affects accuracy and reliability of measurements.
Standard Ambient Conditions are the Conditions under which an
instrument’s specifications are valid.
 Examples: Standard lab conditions (e.g., 25°C, 1 atm pressure)
Effect of Deviation: Alters instrument characteristics, causing
errors. Two Main Effects:
 Zero Drift (Bias)
 Sensitivity Drift (Scale Factor Drift)
Measurement Errors: These drifts cause deviations from true
readings.
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 SENSITIVITY
Zero Drift (Bias) is the Change in the instrument’s zero reading
due to ambient variations.
 Effect: Constant error over the full range.
 Example: Bathroom scale showing 1 kg with no load.
 A 70 kg person weighs 71 kg on the scale.
 Correction: Calibration or adjustment mechanisms (e.g., thumb wheel).
Measurement Unit: Volts/°C (Zero Drift Coefficient)
Illustration of Zero Drift
 Graph in Figure a - Pressure gauge output shift due to zero drift.
 Description: Output curve shifts up or down without changing the slope.

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 SENSITIVITY
Sensitivity Drift (Scale Factor Drift) is the Change in instrument’s
sensitivity due to ambient variations.
 Effect: Alters the rate of change in measurement output.
 Example: Elastic modulus of a spring changes with temperature.
Measurement Unit: (Angular degree/bar)/°C (Sensitivity Drift
Coefficient)
Illustration of Sensitivity Drift
 Graph: Figure 2.7b - Output curve slope changes due to sensitivity drift.
 Description: The output varies at a different rate but does not shift
uniformly.

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 SENSITIVITY
Combined Zero and Sensitivity Drift is the Simultaneous
occurrence of both drifts.
 Graph: Figure 2.7c - Output characteristic altered in both position and
slope.
 Impact: Greater measurement errors and need for frequent recalibration.

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 SENSITIVITY
Key Takeaways:
 Instruments are affected by environmental factors.
 Zero drift shifts the output uniformly.
 Sensitivity drift alters the response rate.
 Calibration minimizes errors.
Understanding these drifts helps maintain accurate and reliable
measurements.

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 HYSTERESIS
Hysteresis or reversibility characterizes the ability of an
instrument to give the same result when the same value for the
quantity measured is obtained by increasing values or decreasing
values.
Hysteresis Curve refers to Output of an instrument differs when
input increases vs. when it decreases. Illustrated by two curves:
 Curve A: Output when input increases.
 Curve B: Output when input decreases.
Noncoincidence between curves is known as hysteresis.
Diagram: Graph showing hysteresis loop (Figure representation).
 Common in instruments where mechanical or magnetic properties affect
accuracy.
 Found in systems with springs, friction, and magnetic materials.

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HYSTERESIS

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 HYSTERESIS
Measuring Hysteresis
 Defined in terms of maximum input and output hysteresis.
 Expressed as a percentage of full-scale input or output.
 Important for precision measurements in various applications.
Hysteresis in Mechanical Instruments
 Common in instruments with springs and friction elements.
 Examples: Passive pressure gauges, Prony brake (used for measuring
torque), Pendulum-scale mass-measuring devices.
Hysteresis in Electrical Instruments
 Occurs due to magnetic hysteresis in iron core components. Found in
instruments with electrical windings.
 Examples: Variable inductance displacement transducer, Linear variable
differential transformer (LVDT), Rotary differential transformer.

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 HYSTERESIS
Causes of Hysteresis
 Mechanical causes: Friction and spring properties.
 Magnetic causes: Iron core properties in electrical devices.
Effects of Hysteresis
 Reduces accuracy.
 Leads to measurement errors.
 Requires compensation in precision systems.
Mitigating Hysteresis in Instruments
 Mechanical systems: Minimize friction and use high-quality springs.
 Electrical systems: Use materials with low magnetic hysteresis.
 Calibration techniques: Adjust for known hysteresis effects.
 Software compensation: Digital correction in modern measurement
systems.
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 HYSTERESIS
Hysteresis affects the accuracy of various instruments.
Understanding its causes helps in designing better measurement
systems.
Proper material selection and calibration can minimize
hysteresis.
Essential consideration for high-precision engineering
applications.

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 DEAD SPACE
Dead space is defined as the
range of different input values
over which there is no change
in output value.
 Occurs in instruments with
hysteresis
 Can also appear in instruments
without hysteresis
 Figure (a) showing input vs.
output with a highlighted dead
space zone Figure a

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 DEAD SPACE
Causes of Dead Space
 Primary Cause: Backlash in gears
Affects systems converting
translational motion to
rotational motion
 Often found in instruments
measuring translational velocity
Effect of Backlash on
Instrument Output
 Creates a gap where input
changes but output does not as
Figure (b)
has been shown in Figure (b)

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DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF
INSTRUMENTS

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ZERO-ORDER INSTRUMENT

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ZERO-ORDER INSTRUMENT

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FIRST-ORDER INSTRUMENT

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FIRST-ORDER INSTRUMENT

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FIRST-ORDER INSTRUMENT

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53
54
SECOND-ORDER INSTRUMENT

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SECOND-ORDER INSTRUMENT

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SECOND-ORDER INSTRUMENT

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SECOND-ORDER INSTRUMENT

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 NECESSITY FOR CALIBRATION
Calibration ensures an instrument conforms to specified static
and dynamic characteristics.
Instruments are initially calibrated by manufacturers.
Over time, instrument accuracy degrades due to various factors.
Causes of Deviation in Instruments
 Mechanical wear and tear.
 Environmental factors: dirt, dust, fumes, chemicals.
 Frequency of usage.
 Severity of operating conditions.

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 NECESSITY FOR CALIBRATION
Importance of Calibration
 Ensures instrument accuracy and reliability.
 Prevents errors in measurements.
 Maintains compliance with industry standards.
 Enhances performance consistency.
When to Calibrate?
 Instrument drifts from standard specification by an unacceptable amount.
 Based on practical knowledge and usage patterns.
 Regular intervals depending on industry standards.

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 NECESSITY FOR CALIBRATION
Calibration Procedure
 Adjust the instrument at each point in its output range.
 Compare output readings with a standard reference instrument.
 Reference instrument must have accurately known specifications.
 Calibration ensures consistency across measurements.
Key Takeaways
 Instruments require calibration to maintain accuracy.
 External factors contribute to instrument deviation.
 Regular calibration ensures reliability and precision.
 Use a standard reference instrument for calibration.

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