Membrane Potentials
• Nerve is highly excitable tissue
• When stimulus is applied, ions flow across membrane
producing voltage change. The voltage change generate
electrical signals .
• These are of two types
1. Graded potential (Electrotonic potential )
(nonpropagated)
2. Action potential (propagated)
Graded potential
Local, nonpropagated,
small amplitude
Mechanism
few Na+ enter through leaky Na
channels
Inside of membrane become +ve
Repolarising forces neutralize
the disturbance created by Na e.g. dendrites & cell body
entry
Properties of graded potentials
1. Graded in nature – when strength of stimulus is↑
magnitude of potential change also ↑
2. Decremental conduction- decay progressively with time &
distance
3. Depolarizing or hyperpolarizing nature
upward waveform/downward waveform
4. Summation – If II stimulus applied before I has disappeared
both r added together producing larger potential
Forms of graded potentials
1. Endplate potential - endplate area of [Link]
(NM Junction)
2. Receptor potential - sensory nerve ending
3. Synaptic potential - postsynaptic membrane
4. Pacemaker potential -pacemaker cells in
heart, intestine
Graded Potential Action Potential
• Amplitude is proportional to • Amplitude remain same irrespective
strength of stimulus of strength of stimulus
• Amplitude ↓ time & distance • Same amplitude & shape along
(nonpropagated - main difference) axon ( all/none law) (propagated)
• Can be summated • Cannot be summated
• Depolarizing/hyperpolarising • Depolarizing
• Opening of ligand gated or leaky • Opening of voltage gated ion
ion channels channels
• Doesn’t have threshold &refractory • have threshold &refractory period
period
2. Action Potential
Rapid changes in the membrane potential that spread rapidly
along the membrane of excitable tissue when stimulated by
threshold stimulus .
It is due to disturbance in ionic equilibrium across the
membrane
subthreshold stimulus- doesnot produce AP
Once the firing level(Threshold level) is reached there occurs AP
Nerve & muscle cells generate AP, which are used to transmit
signals along the membranes
• Phases – 1. depolarisation 2. repolarisation 3. Hyperpolarisation
• Travels along axon with same shape & amplitude at regular
intervals
• a/k/a – impulse or spike potential
• Duration – 1 msec during which MP changes from
-70 mV to +35mV & then returns to -70mV
• Size & duration of AP varies from tissue to tissue
Axon – few msec(40) cardiac muscle 200-300 msec
• Extracellular recording of AP – ECG,EEG,EMG
Phases of AP
1. Depolarisation
Slow depolarisation
Firing level -55mV
Rapid rising
Overshoot 0 +35mV
2. Repolarisation
Rapid falling
After depolarisation
3. Hyperpolarisation
MP become more –ve than
RMP ,then return back to
normal value
(undershoot)
When firing level is reached depolarising
forces overcome repolarising forces
Ionic basis of AP
1. Depolarisation
leaky Na+ channels
• Slow depolarisation -70 mV
massive influx of Na+ (due to
• Firing level(threshold) -55mV
opening of large no. of fast
• Rapid rising voltage gated Na+ channels)
• Overshoot 0 +35mV +ve feedback mechanism
2. Repolarisation Efflux of K+ (opening of slow
voltage gated K+ channels) ↓Na
• Rapid falling influx (closure of Na+ channels)
• After depolarisation inside of membrane –ve so causes
Slow efflux of K+
(inside membrane is –ve)
3. Hyperpolarisation Some K+ channels remain open
for long time
(MP become more –ve)
• Voltage gated Na
channel
Activation gate
Inactivation gate
3 states –
1. Closed (Resting)
2. Open (activated)
3. Inactivated
• Voltage gated K
channel
One gate
Characteristics(properties) of AP
1. Conductivity ( Propagation) – (one way conduction)
2. Strength Duration curve
3. All or None Law
4. Refractory period
5. Adaptation (Accommodation)
Initiation of AP
• AP first formed in Initial
segment/axon hillock area
• a/k/a Trigger zone -High
conc. of voltaged gated Na
& K channels
Propagation of A.P.
• Once formed, A.P. is regenerated at regular intervals along
axon till axon terminal (propagation).
• AP generated at one location acts as stimulus for another AP
in adjacent region
• AP is conducted along membrane as a wave of depolarisation
• Speed of conduction of impulse depend on 2 factors
1. Myelination - more in myelinated axon
2. Diameter of axon - proportionate to Dm of fibre
Propagation of AP in Unmyelinated axon
Large influx of positive charge
(current sink) (1stAP)
+ve charges flow to adjacent -ve
area (Local current flow)
adjacent membrane to firing level
opening of voltage gated Na
channels causes AP (2nd AP)
+ve charges flow to nxt area firing
3rd AP
Series of identical AP
Propagation of AP in myelinated axon
Myelin act as an insulator &
doesn’t allow free flow of ions
Voltage gated Na channels are
plenty at Node of Ranvier So,
AP is generated at each Node
of Ranvier
Saltatory Conduction
(Latin word saltare – to jump)
Advantages-
1. velocity of conduction is faster
2. less expenditure of energy
Direction of propagation of AP
• Neuron – axon hillock to axon terminal
• AP doesn’t travel from axon back towards trigger zone bcz
that area become refractory.
• AP is conducted only in a direction away from the site of
previous AP (one way conduction)
Orthodromic conduction - cell body to nerve terminal
Antidromic conduction - periphery to cell body
Strength Duration curve
(Relationship b/w strength & duration)
Rheobase - minimun strength of
stimulus that can elicit a
response(AP) (threshold)
Utilization time - minimum time for
which stimulus of rheobase
strength needs to be applied to
elicit a response(AP)
Chronaxie - time required for a
stimulus of double rheobase
strength to elicit a response.
It is used to compare excitability
of various tissues
All or None law
All or none relationship b/w stimulus
& response is called all or none law
If AP is produced ,it appears with
max amplitude otherwise it doesn’t
form at all.
Subthreshold stimulus - No AP
Threshold stimulus - AP
Mechanism- No of voltage
suprathreshold stimulus - gated Na channels remain
No increase in Magnitude of AP constant
(but frequency is ↑)
Refractory period (The period of lack of responsiveness)
Absolute R.P. - The period during
which second stimulus doesn’t
produce AP, no matter how strong it
is.
- D+ 1/3R
Mechanism- inactivation gates of voltage
gated Na channels close & remain in
inactivated state for sometime
Importance – it limits no. of A.P. so,
1. It determines rate of discharge of
nerve fibres
2. responsible for one way
conduction of A.P.
Relative R.P. - period during which
stronger stimulus (suprathreshold)
can produce AP
- Last 2/3 of repolarisation
Mechanism-
1. some Na channels have returned
to their initial resting state and
they can open
2. suprathreshold stimulus spread to
larger area & open more no of Na
channels
Adaptation (Accommodation)
When stimulus strength is increased slowly to firing level, no AP is
produced .This is known as adaptation.
Mechanism-
Repolarising forces get time to neutralize positivity inside membrane.
1. Some voltage gated Na channels get inactivated before another set
of voltage gated Na channels channels opens.
2. opening of slow voltage gated K+ channel allow K+ efflux which
oppose Depolarization
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