TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

BASIC PRINCIPLES
Mrs. Tannistha Kapoor Engr. O&M/C&I

Agenda
1. INTRODUCTION 2. THERMOELECTRIC THERMOMETRY 3. RESISTANCE THERMOMETRY

4. EXPANSION TYPE - FILLED SYSTEM

5. EXPANSION TYPE - BIMETAL 6. SIGNAL PROCESSING 7. APPLICATIONS IN POWER PLANTS 8. TEMPERATURE CALIBRATION
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9. NON-CONTACT TEMP. MEASUREMENT

INTRODUCTION
TEMPERATURE:It is a physical property of the system It is the degree of hotness or coldness It is the result of the motion of the particles that make up the system It is measured in degrees in the scales:- Farenheit( oF) , Celsius( oC) & kelvin.

For higher temperatures we use eV = 11,604 K

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THERMOELECTRIC THERMOMETRY
PRINCIPLES
When a closed loop is formed between two metals joined at two places with temperature difference between the junctions, an emf is generated.
(SB & SA are Seebeck coefficients measured in V/K) When a current I is made to flow through the circuit, heat is evolved at the upper junction (at T2), and absorbed at the lower junction (at T1). The Peltier heat absorbed by the lower junction per unit time, is equal to (Where AB is the Peltier coefficient of the entire thermocouple, and A and B are the coefficients of each material) THERMOCOUPLE RESISTOR PYROMETER
THOMSON

SEEBECK

PELTIER

Any current-carrying conductor with a temperature difference between two points, will either absorb or emit heat, depending on the material.

Metals such as zinc and copper exhibit positive Thomson effect while metals such as cobalt, nickel, and iron exhibit negative Thomson
effect.
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THERMOCOUPLES: Based on Seebeck effect Used as a means to convert thermal potential difference into electric potential difference. Three basic laws of thermocouples are law of homogenity, law of intermediate metals, law of intermediate temperature. Since thermocouples measure the temperature difference between junctions and not absolute temperature, one of the junctions (reference) is maintained at a known temperature while the other measures the process temperature. Thermocouple referencing may be done by: Zero reference control point. Hot reference control point Isothermal block Electrical compensating unit.

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REFERENCE JUNCTION COMPENSATION:Zero reference ice point control
A B
HJ
EXTENSION WIRES

Hot reference point control

A B
HJ
EXTENSION WIRES
P/S

COLD JUNCTION

THERMALLY INSULATED BLOCK

RTD

THERMOSTAT

HEATER

Isothermal Block
A B
HJ
EXTENSION WIRES
Amplifier

M U X

A / D
HJ

Electrical compensation
MEAS. DEV

B
EXTENSION WIRES

P/S
THERMALLY INSULATED BLOCK
RTD 5/23/2012 [Link] PM

TEMP. SENSITIVE BRIDGE

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THERMOCOUPLE TYPES
POSITIVE LEG
COPPER

NEGATIVE LEG
CONSTANTAN

TEMP RANGE (CONT)

-185 TO +300

TEMP RANGE (SHORT)

-250 TO +400

IEC COLOR CODE

BS COLOR CODE

ANSI COLOR CODE

COMMENTS

T J E K

GOOD GENERAL PURPOSE, LOW TEMPERATURE, TOLERANT TO MOISTURE. HIGH TEMPERATURE, REDUCING ENVIRONMENT

IRON

CONSTANTAN

0 O +700

-180 TO +800

CHROMEL

CONSTANTAN

0 TO +800

-40 TO +900

GENERAL PURPOSE, LOW AND MEDIUM TEMPERATURES GENERAL PURPOSE HIGH TEMPERATURE, OXIDIZING ENVIRONMENT

CHROMEL

ALUMEL

0 TO +1100

-180 TO +1300

R
S N B

PLATINUM + 13% RHODIUM PLATINUM + 10% RHODIUM NICROSIL

PLATINUM

0 TO +1600

-50 TO +1700 PRECISION, HIGH TEMPERATURE

PLATINUM

0 TO +1600

-50 TO +1750

PRECISION, HIGH TEMPERATURE

NISIL

0 TO +1100

-270 TO +1300

RELATIVELY NEW AS A SUPERIOR REPLACEMENT FOR K type

PLATINUM +30% RHODIUM

PLATINUM +6% RHODIUM

+200 TO +1700

0 TO +1820

GOOD AT HIGH TEMPERATURES, NO RJ COMPENSATION REQ. 7

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Thermoelectric thermometry contd

THERMOCOUPLE INSTALLATION :>Thermocouple connection to instruments:-

Extension cable

Compensating cable

>Installation Practices :-Observe colour codes & polarity of connection for each type of thermocouple. - Avoid subjecting different metals into cabling. Use minimum no. of connections in the measuring circuit. -Where thermocouple RJC is used, the thermocouple should run continuously to the reference unit without break. In case of larger distances extension cables are to be used. -RJC units should be located away from hostile environment or inaccessible locations. - Avoid subjecting compensating cables to high temperatures to avoid inaccuracies.
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Thermoelectric thermometry contd

>Installation practices contd.:-Use screened or braided cable connected to ground in any installation where ac pick-up or relay contact interference is likely. "Twisted pair" construction is useful in such situations. - For very long cable runs, ensure that cable resistance can be tolerated by the instrumentation without resulting in measurement errors. Modern electronic instruments usually accept up to 100 Ohms or so; they will usually tolerate higher lead resistance but some error will result. -Cabling is usually available with many different types of insulation material and outer covering to suit different applications. Choose carefully in consideration of ambient temperature, the presence of moisture or water and the need for abrasion resistance. -If errors or indicator anomalies occur, be sure to check the thermocouple, the cable, interconnections and the instrument. Many such problems are due to incorrect wiring or instrument calibration error rather than the sensor. -When brass or copper terminals is used in the thermocouple circuit it must be ensured that temperature on both sides of the termination is exactly the same. - The thermocouple must be located correctly, so that the measured temperature is true representative of the object/medium being observed. For e.g. in case of temperature measurement of fluid, its depth of immersion must be such that the effects of heat transfer from the measuring junction and or laminar flow conditions are minimised. -Protection of thermocouple to be done by installation of thermowells.(except for MI T/C)
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THERMOCOUPLE CONSTRUCTION

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>

Types:- Basically two general types of construction

describe most industrial thermocouples fabricated and mineral insulated. > Fabricated:-are assembled using insulated thermocouple wire, sheathing (usually stainless steel) and some form of termination. > Mineral Insulated:-consist of thermocouple wire embedded in a densely packed refactory oxide powder insulant all enclosed in a seamless, drawn metal sheath (usually stainless steel).

> Measuring Junction:-

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> Protection Tubes:- Material depends on thermal, chemical and
mechanical conditions at site . > Metal Protection tubes:- High temperature steel is used and for temperatures upto 1150oC > Ceramic Protection tubes :- Mainly used where local conditions prevent use of metals either due to chemical conditions or due o high to temperatures. Mainly used in temperature ranges 1000 1650 C. KER710 (99.7% AL2O3 + traces of MgO,Si2O,Na2O) is the best ceramic material.

> Electrical Insulation:- Thermocouple conductors must be insulated

from each other except at hot junction. For bare wire thermocouples two types of insulation are:> Non ceramic glass fiber, plastic or asbestos. > Hard fired ceramic Aluminum oxide or steatite. These can be either of single or double bore cylindrical type or small beads built on the conductors to enable a fish spine configuration to be arranged on flexible conductors. For Metal sheathed mineral thermocouples, insulant is usually high grade magnesium oxide.

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>Thermocouple terminations:-

> Headless Thermocouples :THERMOCOUPLES WITH COMPENSATING CABLE THERMOCOUPLES WITH BAYONET FITTING

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THERMOWELLS:- It is required where process condition is not only too hot but also highly pressurized or corrosive or abrasive. - In addition it also facilitates removal of sensor for inspection or replacement. - It is basically a hollow metal tube with one end sealed. - The thermowell is permanently installed in the system and a springloaded sensor whose length is designed to fit into the thermowell is installed. The sensor length is designed to bottom in the thermowell with a predetermined spring force. This contact increases thermal conductivity to the thermowell and supports the sensing sheath for protection from process vibration. -Thermowell materials vary from carbon steel to Hastelloy, depending on process fluid and service temperatures. - Connections between the thermowell and the connection heads are typically made using pipe nipples
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- Main disadvantage is slow response time.

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THERMOCOUPLE TESTS:All welded protection fittings are subjected to leakage test or pressure test. > Leakage Test:- A vacuum is produced inside the protection tube. From outside helium is applied to the protection fitting. In caseof leak helium penettrates inside the protection tube as is detected through analysis. Time duration is 10 Sec. > Pressure Test I :- A positive pressure of 1-50 bar is applied to protective tube from outside . In case of leak in the fitting flow will be established in the tube which is detected. Time duration is 10 Sec. > Pressure Test II :- Water pressure of 50-300bar is applied to the protective tube. Water pressure should remain constant is absence of leak. Time duration is 10 Sec.

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THERMOCOUPLE ADVANTAGES: RUGGED CONSTRUCTION LOW COST CAPABLE OF MEASURING WIDER RANGE OF TEMPERATURE THAN RTDS.

THERMOCOUPLE DISADVANTAGES:. CANNOT BE USED IN AREAS WITH HIGH RADIATION.

SLOWER RESPONSE THAN RTDS. WHEN DISTANCE BETWEEN MEAS. DEVICE AND PROBE IS LARGE, INSTALLATION BECOMES EXPENSIVE DUE TO GREATER USE OF EXTENSION WIRES.

FAILURE MODES: OPEN CIRCUIT :- RESULTS IN LOWER READING. SHORT CIRCUIT :- RESULTS IN LOWER READING.

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Thermoelectric thermometry contd

THERMOCOUPLE FAULT FINDING:-

> Indicator shows room temperature:- Thermocouple or cable open

circuited. > Indicator shows correct value but of opposite sign:- Thermocouple connection reversed. >Indication high or low by a fixed amount :- Incorrect cold junction compensation. >Indication correct but drifting inspite of correct measured temperature:- Cold Junction temperature not constant or evaluated correctly. >Indication fixed at 60 deg C:- Cable short circuited. > High readings with both thermocouple limbs disconnected:spurious voltage pickup either due to electromagnetic interference or damp compensating cable insulation

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Thermoelectric thermometry contd

VOLTAGE TABLES FOR THERMOCOUPLES

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RESISTANCE THERMOMETRY
RTD RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS.
>These temperature sensors utilises the predictable change in resistance of

certain materials with temperature changes. >The relation between temperature and resistance is given by CallenderDussen equation

Van

(where RT is the resistance at T C and Ro is the temperature at 0 C.A,B,C are constants.) > Temperature characteristic of an RTD is specified by a single no. alpha, representing the average temperature coefficient over 0 -100 degC temperature range as calculated byalpha = ( R100 - R0 ) / 100 . R0 in ohms/ohm/C beta = 0 for temp > 0degC and 0.11 for temp <0 deg C delta = 1.5 (approx)

For alpha = 0.0385 Pt RTD

,
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,
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Resistance Thermometry contd

RTD CONSTRUCTION:-

RTDs are available in a variety of forms. They are > Wire wound :- It is built by simply winding a small diameter platinum sensing wire around a mandrel constructed of non-electrically conductive material The sensing wire is attached to the larger lead usually by resistance spotwelding and/or hightemperature soldering. The sensing wire is then overcoated with a nonconductive protective coating such as ceramic cement, or glassy coating.

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Resistance Thermometry contd

> Thin Film:-deposit a thin layer of platinum on a ceramic substrate followed by very high temperature annealing and stabilization. The platinum is deposited in a resistance pattern, usually with provisions for adjusting the final resistance by cutting the circuit in a trim area. These sensors are typically coated with a thin glassy coating over the resistance grid and with heavy glassy reinforcement over the lead attachment for mechanical and moisture protection. > Coiled :- These elements are constructed by starting with a helical coil of platinum sensing wire that resembles a lightbulb filament. The wire is inserted into the internal bores of an insulating mandrel providing a strain free sensing element. Powder is packed around the coil to prevent it from shorting and to provide vibration resistance during service. > Hollow Annulus :- It uses an open-ended metal winding mandrel which increases fluid contact and lowers thermal mass to provide a faster time response. The winding area is coated with an insulating material and the sensing wire-wound to a predetermined value. The element is then covered with a coating of insulating material. This sensor has a thin external metal sheath welded over the winding area when it is used with no additional housing. This element has the advantages of being completely sealed and having an extremely fast time response, but it is the most expensive of the four types.

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Resistance Thermometry contd

INTERNAL CONSTRUCTION:The sensing elements are very seldom used by themselves and must be packaged to interface with existing hardware and withstand service conditions. The assembly process begins with connections between the element leads and larger intermediate or external leads. These connections are generally made by welding, brazing or soldering. Intermediate leadwires are often used due to the length of the sensor assembly. Solid wires are chosen because they are easier to handle, and are not subject to flexing. Common materials used for intermediate leads are: nickel, copper, constantan, nickel-plated or clad copper (most common), Stainless steel clad copper, Pt. The intermediate leadwires are then insulated with ceramic tubing, fiberglass sleeving, or organic sleeving if the temperature permits. External leadwires may be specified by the customer, but are usually stranded, plated copper conductors insulated with teflon or fiberglass The subassembly must then be placed into a protective housing. The subassembly is packed with a fine grit metal oxide powder, typically aluminium oxide or magnesium oxide. The assembly is finally sealed with epoxy or ceramic cement.

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Resistance Thermometry contd

> Insulation:These elements nearly always require insulated leads attached. >For temperatures below 250C- PVC, silicon rubber or PTFE insulators are common > Above 250C- glass fibre or ceramic are used.

> Sheath materials :Commonly used sheath materials for industrial sensors and their recommended service are as follows: - Brass. Used for low-temperature commodity applications in mild environments such as air or water temperature measurements. - 304 stainless steel. Good corrosion-resistant characteristics and adequate for most common corrosive agents encountered in industry; service temperatures up to 900F; advantages for machined housings. -316 stainless steel. The most corrosion resistant of the common stainless steels; increased corrosion resistance to non-oxidizing acids such as sulphuric, phosphoric, and acetic; service temperature up to 900F;. - Inconel 600. Better high-temperature corrosion resistance than stainless steels; pre-oxidized sheaths for temperatures up to 1500F;
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Resistance Thermometry contd

RTD TYPES:METAL SYMBOL

TEMPERATURE RANGE

ALPHA

COMMENTS

COPPER

Pt

-200C to 260C

0.00427

Low cost

MOLYBDENUM

Mo

-200C to 200C

0.00300 0.00385

Lower cost alternative to platinum in the lower temperature ranges

NICKEL

Ni

-80C to 260C

0.00672

Low cost, limited temperature range

NICKEL - IRON

Ni-Fe

-200C to 200C

0.00518

Low cost

PLATINUM

Pt

-240C to 660C

0.00385 0.00392 0.00377

Good precision. Extend temperature range to 1000C available

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Resistance Thermometry contd

RTD ADVANTAGES:> Faster response time in comparison to thermocouples. > Does not experience drift. > Within its range it is much more accurate & sensitive than thermocouples >No requirement of extension cables. > Less effect of radioactive emmissions.

RTD DISADVANTAGES :>Much more expensive than thermocouples as metal used must be in purest form. >Cannot measure a wide temperature range. >Power supply failure can result in erroneous readings. >Since changes in resistance are measured all connections must be tight and corrosion free.

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Resistance Thermometry contd

RTD WIRING CONFIGURATIONS:>Two wire configuration:- This is the simplest configuration using two wires. Used only when high accuracy is not required. Maximum cable length is 100 mtrs. > Three wire configuration:- Used to minimize errors due to lead resistance. Max. cable length is 600 mtrs.
>Four wire configuration:-It provides full cancellation of spurious effects and cable resistance of up to 15 can be handled. Actually in four wire measurement the resistance error due to lead wire resistance is zero.

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Resistance Thermometry contd

FAILURE MODES:>Open circuit RTD or or between RTD and Bridge will result in High readings.
> Short circuited RTD or loss of power results in lower readings.

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EXPANSION TYPE THERMOMETERS FILLED SYSTEM

Expansion thermometry uses the fact that any gas maintained at a constant volume will experience Pressure changes when subjected to heat and that a liquid will change its volume when heated. It is a closed system comprising a bulb (temperature sensitive element), an expansion device (Bourdon tube or a bellow) and interconnecting capillary tube. The entire system contains some form of operating fluid. The expansion device is connected to a pointer or recording arm of the instrument measuring temperature. The associated scale is calibrated in degrees of temperature. Normally limited to temperature measurements of secondary importance and for local indication only

Liquid expansion thermometer

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Expansion Type Thermometers Filled System contd.

TYPES :Liquid filled system:-

-Usually employees mercury and operates on the principle of liquid expansion. e.g. Mercury in steel thermometers. - Advantages are evenly divided calibrated scales, vide variation of range, no errors introduced due to change in atmospheric pressure, ample power for operating bourdon tube. - Main disadvantage is that where process medium must not be contaminated by Hg, a small leak may prove hazardous. Vapour pressure filled system :- These are partially filled with a volatile liquid and operate on the principle of vapour pressure. -Particularly useful where long distances are required between bulb and reading instrument, or where temperature is to be measured over a wide range with greater accuracy in the upper part of scale. -Since inert liquid is used any kind of leaks do not prove hazardous. -Main disadvantage is unequally divided scale. Gas filled system :- Operates on the principle of change of pressure of a constant volume of gas contained in a bulb, caused by temperature variations. - Advantages are evenly divided scale and capability of measuring lower temperatures upto 160deg C against -70decC & -30deg C for vapour and liquid filled sys. Respectively)
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Expansion Type Thermometers Filled System contd.

TEMPERATURE GAUGES

ROD TYPE

CAPILLARY TYPE

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Expansion Type Thermometers Filled System contd.

TEMPERATURE SWITCHES:-A temperature switch is one which is temperature responsive. It causes opening or closing of a switch when a predetermined temperature has been reached. -A temperature switch provides alarm, shutdown and control for many types of processes and equipment -The switch consists of a sensor(29), capillary tube(28) and bellow element(23). -The sensing element reacts to temperature variations and increases the pressure in the bellows when temperature rises. -By turning the setting knob(5), the main spring(12) can be set to balance the pressure in the element. -A rise in the temperature of the sensor compresses the bellows and moves the main spindle(15) upwards until the spring force and element pressure are in equilibrium. -Such an action is transferred to the switch and causes its on-off action
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EXPANSION TYPE THERMOMETERS BIMETALLIC

Sensitive element consists of two strips of metal each having different coefficients of temperature which are bonded together and clamped at one end. When subjected to temperature rise, the free end deflects, the amount of deflection being proportional to temperature.

The elements may be in the form of straight strip, circle, helix or mainspring. The deflection of helix is much more than the other two. Used when it is required to operate an alarm or control circuit. Main advantages are simple construction, faster response than filled system, can operate a switch directly. Main disadvantages are it must be directly immersed in the measured medium. In case of vibrations helix type is unstable.

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Expansion Type Thermometers Bimetallic contd.

Coiled bimetallic strip

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SIGNAL PROCESSING
For power plant applications the mv signal from thermocouples or resistance signals from RTDs require some sort of processing before they can be used for indication, recording or control purposes. Signal processing may be done either in the DCS system or on location itself. For on location signal processing special transducers which convert primary signal to 4-20mA DC signal are used. In DCS system the raw signals from primary transducers are converted to digital signals using special input modules depending on the type of primary sensing element. These digital signals may then be used for further processing or may be converted to 4-20mA DC signals through special output modules for use in indicators and recorders. For all thermocouples with reference junction compensation, the system must be offset by the reference junction temperature.

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APPLICATION IN POWER PLANTS

METAL TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT IN BOILERS. FURNACE TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT. FLUE GAS TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT. AIR TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT. HFO TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT. FEEDWATER TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT. STEAM TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT. METAL TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT IN TURBINES. WINDING TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT OF DRIVES. BEARING TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT. FIRE SENSORS. EXCITOR HOT AIR TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT. GENERATOR COLD GAS TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT. PW TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

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TEMPERATURE CALIBRATION
All Sensors change their characteristics with time. Hence timely calibration of sensors is required for accurate temperature measurement. Temperature calibration may be done at three levels-Primary laboratories, Secondary laboratories ,Industrial calibration. Variety of heat sources are available for calibration, the most popular being dry block calibrators. However liquid baths and multipurpose sources are becoming increasingly popular. DRY BLOCK CALIBRATORS:Dry blocks have a metal block into which the temperature sensors to be calibrated are placed. The block is heated or cooled to the desired temperature. Dry blocks fall into three temperature ranges, dictated by material availability, heater and cooling technology.

-Peltier driven equipment: Peltier modules are solid state heat pumps. Dry blocks utilising this type of device have advantages of being able to heat and cool, are often portable and typically have fast heating and cooling rates. Peltier driven equipment has a typical operating range of -40 to 140C.
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Temperature Calibration Contd

DRY BLOCK CALIBRATORS contd.:* Electrically heated metal block baths: with this type of equipment an electrical
heater replaces the heat pump. These are commonly made with maximum temperature ranges of 650 to 700C. * Small furnaces: at high temperatures conventional metal sheathed electric heating elements are replaced with ceramic furnace designs. These devices are commonly used to calibrate to 1200C.

PORTABLE LIQUID BATHS :Portable stirred liquid baths have a well which is filled with a liquid. The liquid is stirred and heated or cooled to the desired temperature. They are ideal for awkward shaped and short sensors. Accuracies are in general better than dry blocks due to the lack of air gaps and the temperature uniformity of the stirred liquid. Water filled baths are to be used for temperature 0 to 100deg [Link] baths are to be used for temperatures only above 100 degC

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NON-CONTACT TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT.

PYROMETERS:- It is a non-contacting device intercepting and measuring thermal radiation emitted from an object to determine surface temperature. 4 - The thermal energy radiated =T where is the emissivity of the surface, is Stefan Boltzmanns constant, and T is absolute temperature in Kelvin. This energy is radiated over a wide range of frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum. Optical Pyrometers:-Designed for thermal radiation in the visible spectrum. -Utilizes a visual comparison between a calibrated light source and the targeted surface. When the filament and the target have the same temperature, their thermal radiation intensity will match causing the filament to disappear as it blends into the targeted surface in the background. -When the filament disappears, the current passing through the filament can be converted into a temperature reading.
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Non-contact temperature measurement contd.

Infrared Pyrometers:-Designed for thermal radiation in the infrared region (0.75 ~ 1000 m; 30 in ~ 0.04 in) usually 2 ~ 14 m (80 ~ 550 in)-Constructed from pyroelectric materials, e.g., triglisine sulfate (TGS), lithium tantalate (LiTaO3), or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF). Fiber Optic Radiation:-these devices use a light guide, such as a flexible transparent fiber, to direct radiation to the detector, -These devices are particularly useful when it is difficult or impossible to obtain a clear sighting path to the target. THERMOPILE:-It consists of a group of very small thermocouples, connected in series such that their emf is additive. -The thermocouple junction, about pin- point are flattened and blackened so that they absorb all radiant energy reaching them.

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Temperature Measurement

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