Plant Structure and Function

Biology for Majors

Plant Cells
Typical Plant Cell
Types of Plant Cells: Parenchymal

Exampl
Structure Functions
e
cube-
shaped
loosely
packed photosynth food
thin-walled esis storage
relatively cellular tissues
unspecializ respiration of
ed storage potatoes
contain
chloroplast
s
Collenchymal

Structure Function Example

elongated
support
irregularly strings running through
wind
thickened a stalk of celery
resistance
walls
Sclerenchymal

Structure Function Example

very thick cell tough fibers in

support
walls containing jute (used to
strength
lignin make rope)
Plant Tissue Types

Plant tissue systems fall into one of two general types: meristematic tissue
and permanent (or non-meristematic) tissue. Cells of the meristematic
tissue are found in meristems, which are plant regions of continuous cell
division and growth. Meristematic tissue cells are either undifferentiated or
incompletely differentiated, and they continue to divide and contribute to
the growth of the plant. In contrast, permanent tissue consists of plant cells
that are no longer actively dividing.
Meristematic Tissue Types

Meristematic tissues consist of three types, based on their

location in the plant:
• Apical meristems contain meristematic tissue located at the
tips of stems and roots, which enable a plant to extend in
length.
• Lateral meristems facilitate growth in thickness or girth in a
maturing plant.
• Intercalary meristems occur only in monocots, at the bases
of leaf blades and at nodes (the areas where leaves attach to a
stem). This tissue enables the monocot leaf blade to increase
in length from the leaf base
Permanent Tissue Types

Cells take on specific roles and lose their ability to divide further. They
differentiate into three main types:
• Dermal tissue covers and protects the plant.
• Vascular tissue transports water, minerals, and sugars to different parts
of the plant.
• Ground tissue serves as a site for photosynthesis, provides a supporting
matrix for the vascular tissue, and helps to store water and sugars.
Tissue Types in a Stem Cross-section
Dermal Tissue

The dermal tissue of the stem consists primarily of epidermis, a

single layer of cells covering and protecting the underlying tissue.
Woody plants have a tough, waterproof outer layer of cork cells
commonly known as bark, which further protects the plant from
damage. Epidermal cells are the most numerous and least
differentiated of the cells in the epidermis. Trichomes are hair-like
structures on the epidermal surface. They help to
reduce transpiration (the loss of water by aboveground plant
parts), increase solar reflectance, and store compounds that
defend the leaves against predation by herbivores.
Dermal Tissue: Stomata
Vascular Tissue
Xylem Tissue

Xylem tissue has three types of cells: xylem parenchyma, tracheids, and
vessel elements. The latter two types conduct water and are dead at
maturity. Tracheids are xylem cells with thick secondary cell walls that are
lignified. Water moves from one tracheid to another through regions on the
side walls known as pits, where secondary walls are absent. Vessel
elements are xylem cells with thinner walls; they are shorter than
tracheids. Each vessel element is connected to the next by means of a
perforation plate at the end walls of the element. Water moves through the
perforation plates to travel up the plant.
Phloem Tissue

Phloem tissue is composed of sieve-tube cells, companion cells, phloem

parenchyma, and phloem fibers. A series of sieve-tube cells (also called
sieve-tube elements) are arranged end to end to make up a long sieve tube,
which transports organic substances such as sugars and amino acids. The
sugars flow from one sieve-tube cell to the next through perforated sieve
plates, which are found at the end junctions between two cells. Although
still alive at maturity, the nucleus and other cell components of the sieve-
tube cells have disintegrated. Companion cells are found alongside the
sieve-tube cells, providing them with metabolic support. The companion
cells contain more ribosomes and mitochondria than the sieve-tube cells,
which lack some cellular organelles.
Ground Tissue

Ground tissue is mostly made up of parenchyma cells, but may also contain
collenchyma and sclerenchyma cells that help support the stem. The ground
tissue towards the interior of the vascular tissue in a stem or root is known
as pith, while the layer of tissue between the vascular tissue and the
epidermis is known as the cortex.
Plant Organs

Vascular plants have two distinct organ systems: a shoot system, and a root
system. The shoot system consists of two portions: the vegetative (non-
reproductive) parts of the plant, such as the leaves and the stems, and the
reproductive parts of the plant, which include flowers and fruits. The shoot
system generally grows above ground, where it absorbs the light needed for
photosynthesis. The root system, which supports the plants and absorbs
water and minerals, is usually underground.
Roots and
Shoots
Stems

Stems provide support to the plant, holding leaves, flowers and buds; in
some cases, stems also store food for the plant. The stem of the plant
connects the roots to the leaves, helping to transport absorbed water and
minerals to different parts of the plant. It also helps to transport the
products of photosynthesis, from the leaves to the rest of the plant.
Stem Structure

Leaves are attached to the plant

stem at areas called nodes. An
internode is the stem region
between two nodes. The petiole
is the stalk connecting the leaf
to the stem. The leaves just
above the nodes arose from
axillary buds.
Parenchyma Cells

Parenchyma cells, the most

common plant cells, are found in
the stem, the root, the inside of
the leaf, and the pulp of the
fruit. They are responsible for
metabolic functions, such as
photosynthesis, and they help
repair and heal wounds. Some
also store starch. At right the
central pith (greenish-blue, in
the center) and peripheral
cortex (narrow zone 3–5 cells
thick just inside the epidermis)
are made of parenchyma cells.
Collenchyma Cells

Collenchyma cells are elongated cells with unevenly thickened walls. They
provide structural support, mainly to the stem and leaves. These cells are
alive at maturity and are usually found below the epidermis.
Sclerenchyma cells

Sclerenchyma cells also provide support to the plant, but unlike collenchyma
cells, many of them are dead at maturity. They have secondary cell walls
that are thickened with deposits of lignin, an organic compound that is a key
component of wood. There are two types of sclerenchyma cells: fibers and
sclereids.
Stem Modifications
Tendrils and Thorns
Parts of a
Leaf
Venation in Monocot (a), Dicot (b), and Gingko
(c)
Leaf Arrangement

The arrangement of leaves on a stem, known as phyllotaxy, enables

maximum exposure to sunlight. Each plant species has a characteristic leaf
arrangement and form. The pattern of leaf arrangement may be alternate,
opposite, or spiral.
Leaf Form
Leaf Structure

Leaf tissue consists of the epidermis, which forms the outermost cell layer,
and mesophyll and vascular tissue, which make up the inner portion of the
leaf.
Types of Root Systems
Root Growth
and Structure
Vascular Structure in Roots
Dicot and Monocot Roots
Root Modifications: Vegetables

Root structures may be modified

for specific purposes. For
example, some roots are
bulbous and store starch. Tap
roots, such as carrots, turnips,
and beets, are examples of
roots that are modified for food
storage
Aerial and Prop Roots
Water Potential

Plants use the potential energy in water to move water and solutes from one
part of the plant to another. The water potential in plant solutions is
influenced by solute concentration, pressure, gravity, and factors called
matrix effects. Water potential can be broken down into its individual
components using the following equation:
Ψsystem = Ψtotal = Ψs + Ψp + Ψg + Ψm

where Ψs, Ψp, Ψg, and Ψm refer to the solute, pressure, gravity, and matric
potentials, respectively. “System” can refer to the water potential of the soil
water (Ψsoil), root water (Ψroot), stem water (Ψstem), leaf water (Ψleaf) or the
water in the atmosphere (Ψatmosphere): whichever aqueous system is under
consideration.
Plants can change
Solute Pressure
Pressure Potential

Pressure potential (Ψp), also called turgor potential, may be positive or

negative. Positive pressure inside cells is contained by the cell wall,
producing turgor pressure. A plant can manipulate Ψp via its ability to
manipulate Ψs and by the process of osmosis. If a plant cell increases the
cytoplasmic solute concentration, Ψs will decline, Ψtotal will decline, the ΔΨ
between the cell and the surrounding tissue will decline, water will move
into the cell by osmosis, and Ψp will increase. Ψp is also under indirect plant
control via the opening and closing of stomata. Stomatal openings allow
water to evaporate from the leaf, reducing Ψp and Ψtotal of the leaf and
increasing ii between the water in the leaf and the petiole, thereby allowing
water to flow from the petiole into the leaf.
Turgor Potential Keeps Plants Erect

When (a) total water potential (Ψtotal) is lower outside the cells than inside,
water moves out of the cells and the plant wilts. When (b) the total water
potential is higher outside the plant cells than inside, water moves into the
cells, resulting in turgor pressure (Ψp) and keeping the plant erect.
Gravity Potential

Gravity potential (Ψg) is always negative to zero in a plant with no height. It

always removes or consumes potential energy from the system. The force of
gravity pulls water downwards to the soil, reducing the total amount of
potential energy in the water in the plant (Ψ total). The taller the plant, the
taller the water column, and the more influential Ψ g becomes. On a cellular
scale and in short plants, this effect is negligible. However, over the height
of a tall tree, the gravitational pull of –0.1 MPa m -1 is equivalent to an extra 1
MPa of resistance that must be overcome for water to reach the leaves of
the tallest trees. Plants are unable to manipulate Ψ g.
Matric Potential

Matric potential (Ψm) is always negative to zero. In a dry system, it can be

as low as –2 MPa and it is zero in a water-saturated system. The binding of
water to a matrix always removes or consumes potential energy from the
system. Every plant cell has a cellulosic cell wall and the cellulose in the cell
walls is hydrophilic, producing a matrix for adhesion of water: hence the
name matric potential. Ψm is very large (negative) in dry tissues such as
seeds or drought-affected soils. However, it quickly goes to zero as the seed
takes up water or the soil hydrates. Ψm cannot be manipulated by the plant
and is typically ignored in well-watered roots, stems, and leaves.
Transpiration

Transpiration is the loss of water from the plant through evaporation at the
leaf surface. It is the main driver of water movement in the xylem.
Transpiration is caused by the evaporation of water at the leaf–atmosphere
interface; it creates negative pressure (tension) equivalent to –2 MPa at the
leaf surface. Water from the roots is pulled up by this tension. At night,
when stomata shut and transpiration stops, the water is held in the stem
and leaf by the adhesion of water to the cell walls of the xylem vessels and
tracheids, and the cohesion of water molecules to each other. Transpiration
is a passive process; it does not use ATP.
Cohesion-
tension
Theory of Sap
Ascent
Plants Adapt to Control Transpiration in their
Environments
Phloem

Phloem is comprised of cells

called sieve-tube elements.
Phloem sap travels through
perforations called sieve tube
plates. Neighboring companion
cells carry out metabolic
functions for the sieve-tube
elements and provide them with
energy. Lateral sieve areas
connect the sieve-tube elements
to the companion cells.
Translocation

Sucrose is actively transported from

source cells into companion cells
and then into the sieve-tube
elements. This reduces the water
potential, which causes water to
enter the phloem from the xylem.
The resulting positive pressure
forces the sucrose-water mixture
down toward the roots, where
sucrose is unloaded. Transpiration
causes water to return to the leaves
through the xylem vessels.
How the Phytochrome System Works

The biologically inactive form of

phytochrome (Pr) is converted to the
biologically active form Pfr under
illumination with red light. Far-red
light and darkness convert the
molecule back to the inactive form.
Phototropism

Phototropism—the directional bending of a plant toward or away from a light

source—is a response to blue wavelengths of light. Positive phototropism is
growth towards a light source, while negative phototropism (also called
skototropism) is growth away from light.
Phototropins are protein-based receptors responsible for mediating the
phototropic response. Like all plant photoreceptors, phototropins consist of a
protein portion and a light-absorbing portion, called the chromophore. Other
responses under the control of phototropins are leaf opening and closing,
chloroplast movement, and the opening of stomata.
Photoperiodism

Plants also use the phytochrome system to sense the change of season.
Photoperiodism is a biological response to the timing and duration of day
and night. It controls flowering, setting of winter buds, and vegetative
growth. Detection of seasonal changes is crucial to plant survival. Although
temperature and light intensity influence plant growth, they are not reliable
indicators of season because they may vary from one year to the next. Day
length is a better indicator of the time of year.
Plant Responses to Gravity

Whether or not they germinate in the light or in total darkness, shoots

usually sprout up from the ground, and roots grow downward into the
ground. A plant laid on its side in the dark will send shoots upward when
given enough time. Gravitropism ensures that roots grow into the soil and
that shoots grow toward sunlight. Growth of the shoot apical tip upward is
called negative gravitropism, whereas growth of the roots downward is
called positive gravitropism.
How Do Plants Sense Gravity?

Amyloplasts are specialized plastids that contain starch granules

and settle downward in response to gravity. Amyloplasts are found
in shoots and in specialized cells of the root cap. When
amyloplasts settle to the bottom of the gravity-sensing cells in the
root or shoot, they physically contact the endoplasmic reticulum
(ER), causing the release of calcium ions from inside the ER. This
calcium signaling in the cells causes polar transport of the plant
hormone IAA to the bottom of the cell. In roots, a high
concentration of IAA inhibits cell elongation. The effect slows
growth on the lower side of the root, while cells develop normally
on the upper side. IAA has the opposite effect in shoots.
Responses to Touch and Wind

The movement of a plant subjected to constant directional pressure is

called thigmotropism. Thigmomorphogenesis is a slow developmental
change in the shape of a plant subjected to continuous mechanical stress.
When trees bend in the wind, for example, growth is usually stunted and the
trunk thickens.
Plant Defense

The first line of defense in plants is an intact and impenetrable barrier. Bark
and the waxy cuticle can protect against predators. Other adaptations
against herbivory include thorns, which are modified branches, and spines,
which are modified leaves. They discourage animals by causing physical
damage and inducing rashes and allergic reactions. A plant’s exterior
protection can be compromised by mechanical damage, which may provide
an entry point for pathogens.
Secondary Metabolites

If the first line of defense is breached, the plant must resort to a different set
of defense mechanisms, such as toxins and enzymes. Secondary
metabolites are compounds that are not directly derived from
photosynthesis and are not necessary for respiration or plant growth and
development. Many metabolites are toxic, and can even be lethal to animals
that ingest them. Some metabolites are alkaloids, which discourage
predators with noxious odors or repellent tastes. Other alkaloids affect
herbivores by causing either excessive stimulation or lethargy. Some
compounds become toxic after ingestion.
Systemic Response

Long-distance signaling elicits a systemic response aimed at

deterring the predator. The infected and surrounding cells may
die, thereby stopping the spread of infection. As tissue is
damaged, jasmonates may promote the synthesis of compounds
that are toxic to predators. Jasmonates also elicit the synthesis of
volatile compounds that attract parasitoids, which are insects
that spend their developing stages in or on another insect, and
eventually kill their host. The plant may activate abscission of
injured tissue if it is damaged beyond repair.
How Plants Grow

Most plants continue to grow as long as they live. They grow through a
combination of cell growth and cell division (mitosis). The key to plant
growth is meristem, a type of plant tissue consisting of undifferentiated cells
that can continue to divide and differentiate. Meristem allows plant stems
and roots to grow longer (primary growth) and wider (secondary growth).
Apical Meristem
Root Tip
Primary and Secondary Growth
Annual Rings
Plant Hormones

A plant’s sensory response to external stimuli relies on chemical

messengers. Plant hormones affect all aspects of plant life, from flowering to
fruit setting and maturation, and from phototropism to leaf fall. Potentially
every cell in a plant can produce plant hormones. They can act in their cell
of origin or be transported to other portions of the plant body, with many
plant responses involving the synergistic or antagonistic interaction of two
or more hormones.
Auxins

The term auxin is derived from the Greek word auxein, which means “to
grow.” Auxins are the main hormones responsible for cell elongation in
phototropism and gravitropism. They also control the differentiation of
meristem into vascular tissue, and promote leaf development and
arrangement. Flowering, fruit setting and ripening, and inhibition
of abscission (leaf falling) are other plant responses under the direct or
indirect control of auxins.
Other Plant Hormones

• Cytokinin is a hormone that promotes cytokinesis (cell division.

• Abscisic acid inhibits stem elongation and induces dormancy in
lateral buds.
• Ethylene is associated with fruit ripening, flower wilting, and
leaf fall.
• Jasmonates coordinate defense responses to herbivory.
• Oligosaccharins play a role in plant defense against bacterial
and fungal infections.
• Strigolactones promote seed germination and play a role in the
establishment of mycorrhizae
Gibberellins

Gibberellins (GAs) are a group of

about 125 closely related plant
hormones that stimulate shoot
elongation, seed germination,
and fruit and flower maturation.
Plant Nutrition

Plants absorb inorganic nutrients and water through their root

system, and carbon dioxide from the environment. The
combination of organic compounds, along with water, carbon
dioxide, and sunlight, produce the energy that allows plants to
grow. Inorganic compounds form the majority of the soil solution.
Plants access water though the soil. Water is absorbed by the
plant root, transports nutrients throughout the plant, and
maintains the structure of the plant. Essential elements are
indispensable elements for plant growth. They are divided into
macronutrients and micronutrients.
Plants absorb water
through root hairs.
Essential Elements for Plant Growth
Macronutrients Micronutrients
Carbon (C) Iron (Fe)
Hydrogen (H) Manganese (Mn)
Oxygen (O) Boron (B)
Nitrogen (N) Molybdenum (Mo)
Phosphorus (P) Copper (Cu)
Potassium (K) Zinc (Zn)
Calcium (Ca) Chlorine (Cl)
Magnesium (Mg) Nickel (Ni)
Sulfur (S) Cobalt (Co)
Sodium (Na)
Silicon (Si)
One Reason Plants Need Carbon
Practice Question

What do plant use cellulose for?

Nutritional Deficiencies
Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria

Soybean roots contain (a) nitrogen-fixing nodules. Cells within the nodules
are infected with Bradyrhyzobium japonicum, a rhizobia or “root-loving”
bacterium. The bacteria are encased in (b) vesicles inside the cell.
Mycorrhizae

Fungi form symbiotic associations called mycorrhizae with plant roots, in

which the fungi actually are integrated into the physical structure of the
root. Through mycorrhization, the plant gains essential elements from the
soil because narrow hyphae can spread beyond the nutrient depletion zone.
The plant gives the fungus nutrients, such as sugars.
Parasitic Plants

A parasitic plant depends on its host for survival. Some parasitic plants have
no leaves. The parasitic plant obtains water and nutrients through these
connections. The plant above is a total parasite (a holoparasite) because it is
completely dependent on its host. Other parasitic plants (hemiparasites) are
fully photosynthetic and only use the host for water and minerals.
Saprophytes

A saprophyte is a plant that does not have chlorophyll and gets its food from
dead matter. Plants like these use enzymes to convert organic food materials
into simpler forms from which they can absorb nutrients. Most saprophytes do
not directly digest dead matter: instead, they parasitize fungi that digest dead
matter, or are mycorrhizal, ultimately obtaining photosynthate from a fungus
that derived photosynthate from its host. Saprophytic plants are uncommon.
Epiphyte

An epiphyte is a plant that grows on other plants, but is not dependent upon
the other plant for nutrition. Epiphytes have two types of roots: clinging aerial
roots, which absorb nutrients from humus that accumulates in the crevices of
trees; and aerial roots, which absorb moisture from the atmosphere.
Insectivorous Plants

An insectivorous plant has specialized leaves to attract and digest insects. The
minerals it obtains from prey compensate for those lacking in low pH soil. There
are three sensitive hairs in the center of each half of each leaf. Nectar secreted
by the plant attracts flies to the leaf. When a fly touches the sensory hairs, the
leaf immediately closes. Next, fluids and enzymes break down the prey and
minerals are absorbed by the leaf.
Practice Question:

How do trees overcome gravity to get water from their roots to their leaves?
Quick Review

• What are the basic common structures of plants?

• How are water and solutes transported in plants?
• What are common sensory systems and responses in plants?
• What are the key elements and processes in plant growth?
• What are the common nutritional needs of plants?