Sampling Methods

Lecture 2:
Matur T. Tieng
Why it is important to Know

To learn and apply various data collection techniques suitable for

different research contexts.

To understand sampling methods and procedures for selecting

representative study populations.

To learning why choosing appropriate sampling methods is the

foundation of good research

 Sampling
 A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully representative) collection of units from a
population used to determine truths about that population” .

Why sample?
• Cost in terms of money, time and manpower
• Accessibility
• Utility e.g. to do diagnostic laboratory test you don’t draw the whole of patient’s
blood.
A census is a sample consisting of the entire population.
Even though a census is not full proof, it gives detailed information about every small area of the
population.
It has the following disadvantages:
• Expensive
• Takes a long time
• Cumbersome & therefore inaccurately done ( a careful sample produces a more accurate data than a census.) 3
 Sampling…..
 Sampling is the process of selecting a representative sample from populations.
 It Selecting cases (elements)—or locating people (or other units of analysis)—from a target population in
order to study the population.

sampling
Sample
Inference
Population

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 Population Vs. Sample

Population of Interest

Population Sample

Sample
Parameter
Statistic

We measure the sample using statistics in order to draw

inferences about the population and its parameters.

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 Properties of Good Samples

o Representation
• Sample surveys are almost never conducted for the purposes of describing the particular
sample under study. Rather they are conducted for purposes of understanding the larger
population from which the sample was initially selected
• A great deal of work has been done over the years in developing sampling methods that
provide representative samples for the general population.

E.g. international survey programs such as the DHS series, EPI coverage surveys have
perfected the art of household sampling.

o Accessible
o Low cost: when budget the conduct the study is not enough
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 Basic Terms

 population (also called source population or target population): is a group of individuals persons, objects, or items
from which samples are taken for measurement.
 Non-probability samples: With non-probability sampling methods, we do not know the probability that each
population element will be chosen, and/or we cannot be sure that each population element has a non-zero chance of
being chosen
 Sampling unit - the unit of selection in the sampling process
 Study unit (study subjects)- the unit on which information is collected or on which observations are made. E.g.
Familiar examples are families, towns, litters, branches of a company, individual subjects or schools.
 Sampling Frame: is the list of people from which the sample is taken. It is the list from which the potential
respondents are drawn.
It should be comprehensive, complete and up-to-date.
Examples of sampling frame: Electoral Register; Postcode Address File; telephone book and so on.
 Probability samples: With probability sampling methods, each population element has a known (non-zero) chance of
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being chosen for the sample.
Basic term cont’d….

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 Basic Terms cont’d…
 Census: Obtained by collecting information about each member of a population. Studying
the whole population and requires a great deals of time, money and energy.

 Sample survey: study sample and draw conclusions about populations. It is cheaper in
terms of cost, practical & convenient in terms of technicalities, saves time & energy.
 Sampling Frame: is the list of people from which the sample is taken. It is the
list from which the potential respondents are drawn.

It should be comprehensive, complete and up-to-date.

Examples of sampling frame: Electoral Register; Postcode Address File; telephone
book and so on.
 Probability samples: With probability sampling methods, each population element has a
known (non-zero) chance of being chosen for the sample.

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 Basic term cont’d….

• The sampling unit is not necessarily the same as the study unit.
• If the objective is to determine the availability of latrine,
• then the study unit would be the household;
• If the objective is to determine the prevalence of trachoma,
then the study unit would be the individual.
Sampling fraction (Sampling interval) - the ratio of the
number of units in the sample to the number of units in the
reference population (N/n)

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 Errors in statistical Study

A sample is expected to mirror the population from which it comes, however, there is no
guarantee that any sample will be precisely representative of the population.
No sample is the exact mirror image of the population .

Sampling or Random

Errors
Non-sampling or
systematic

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 1. Sampling error

o Random error- the sample selected is not representative of the population due to chance
o The uncertainty associated with an estimate that is based on data gathered from a sample of the
population rather than the full population is known as sampling error.
o Sampling errors are the random variations in the sample estimates around the true population
parameters.
• The level of it is controlled by sample size
• a larger sample size leads to a smaller sampling error. it decreases with the increase in the size of
the sample, and it happens to be of a smaller magnitude in case of homogeneous population.
• When n = N ⇒ sampling error = 0

 Can not be avoided or totally eliminated

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 The cause of sampling error
Chance: main cause of sampling error and is the error that occurs just because
of bad luck.

Sampling bias: Sampling bias is a tendency to favor the selection of

participants that have particular characteristics.
The chance component (sometimes called random error) exists no matter how
carefully the selection procedures are implemented, and the only way to
minimize chance-sampling errors is to select a s u ff i c i e n t l y l a rg e s a m p l e .
Example:
If a health survey selects 200 households 500,000 households
in Juba County, the estimated malaria prevalence may differ
from the true prevalence.

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 2. Non Sampling Error

It is a type of systematic error in the design or conduct of a sampling

procedure which results in distortion of the sample, so that it is no longer
representative of the reference population.

We can eliminate or reduce the non-sampling error (bias) by careful design of

the sampling procedure and not by increasing the sample size.

It can occur whether the total study population or a sample is being used.

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Non-sampling Error……

o The basic types of non-sampling error

• Non-response error
• Response or data error
o A non-response error occurs when units selected as part of the sampling procedure do not respond in whole or in
part
• If non-respondents are not different from those that did respond, there is no non-response error
• When non-respondents constitute a significant proportion of the sample (about 15% or more

o A response or data error is any systematic bias that occurs during data collection, analysis or
interpretation
• Respondent error (e.g., lying, forgetting, etc.)
• Interviewer bias
• Recording errors
• Poorly designed questionnaires
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 Advantage of sampling

We obtain a sample rather than a complete enumeration (a census ) of the

population for many reasons.
Feasibility it may be the only feasible method of collecting data
Reduced cost sampling reduces demands on resource such as finance, personal
and material
Greater accuracy sampling may lead to better accuracy of collecting data.
Greater speed data can be collected and summarized more quickly

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 Disadvantage of Sampling

If sampling is biased, or not representative or too small the conclusion may not be valid and
reliable

If the population is very large and there are many sections and subsections, the sampling
procedure becomes very complicated

If the researcher does not possess the necessary skill and technical knowledge in sampling
procedure, then the outcome will be devastated.

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 Types of Sampling Methods

Sampling Method

Non-Probability Probability Samples

Samples
Simple Stratified
Random
Quota
Judgemental
Systematic Cluster

Convenience
Multistage Random
Sampling

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1. Simple Random Sampling(SRS)
Simple random sampling is the most straightforward of the random sampling strategies.

To use SRS there should be

o sampling frame for the population
o All possible samples of “n” subjects are equally likely ( ) to occur.
o population is small, relatively homogeneous & readily available
Procedures to select the sample
The specific procedures that you follow may vary depending on your resources, but all
involve some type of random process. Depending on the complexity
1
of the population,
n
we can use different tools to select “n” samples from the given sampling frame.
 These are lottery method,
 table of random number (they are available in the appendix of many research methods and statistics
textbooks) or
 computer generated random number.

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 2. Systematic Random Sampling
Systematic sampling is thought as random, as long as the periodic interval is determined beforehand and the
starting point is random
A method of selecting sample members from a larger population according to a random starting point and a
fixed, periodic interval.
Typically, every nth member is selected from the total population for inclusion in the sample population.
It is frequently chosen by researchers for its simplicity and its periodic quality.
it needs the population to be homogeneous, however the method does not require frame.
Steps in systematic sampling
Define the population
Determine the desired sample size (n)
List the population from 1 to N
Determine K, where k=N/n
Select a random number between 1 and k, let us denote this number by “a” Starting at a, take every Kth
number on the list until the desired sample is obtained.
Then the selected list will be
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a, a+k, a+2k, a+3k, …, a+(n-1)k
 3. Stratified Random Sampling
Stratified random sampling is used when we have subgroups in our population that are
likely to differ substantially in their responses or behavior (i.e. if the population is
heterogeneous).

In stratified random sampling, the population is first divided into a number of parts or
'strata' according to some characteristic, chosen to be related to the major variables being
studied.

For example, you are interested in visual-spatial reasoning and previous research suggests
that men and women will perform differently on these types of task

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Steps involve in stratified sampling method:
Define the population
Determine the desired sample size
Identify the variable and subgroups (strata) for which you want to guarantee appropriate
representation (either proportional or equal)

Classify all members of the population as a member of one of the identified subgroups
Randomly select (using simple random sampling or others) an appropriate number of
individuals from each subgroup.

Then the total sample size will be the sum of all samples from each subgroup.

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 4. Cluster Random Sampling
Steps in cluster sampling are
Define the population
Determine the desired sample size
Identify and define a logical cluster (can be Juba County, Muniki Payam,
Households, and so on)
Make a list of all clusters in the population
Estimate the average number of population number per cluster
Determine the number of clusters needed by dividing the sample size by the
estimated size of the cluster
Randomly select the required number of clusters (using table of random
number as the total number of clusters is manageable)
Include in the sample all population in the selected cluster. 23
Consider the following graphical display:

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 Non-Probability Sampling Method

In the presence of constraints to use probability sampling

strategies, the alternative sampling method is non-probability
sampling method.

Non-probability sampling strategies are used when it is practically

impossible to use probability sampling strategies.

Non-probability sampling is sampling procedure which does not

afford any basis for estimating the probability that each item in the
population has of being included in the sample.

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Cont’d……….

Subjective units of population have a zero or unknown

probability of selection before drawing the as sample. Hence
obtained a non-representative samples.
Sampling error can not be computed
Survey results cannot be projected to the population

Advantages
 Cheaper and faster than probability
 Reasonably representative if collected in a thorough manner

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 1. Judgment Sampling/ Purposive sampling

The researcher selects the sample based on judgment. A researcher exerts some effort in
selecting a sample that seems to be most appropriate for the study.

This is used primarily when there is a limited number of people that have
expertise in the area being researched

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2. Convenience Sampling

Convenience sampling selects a particular group of people but it

does not come close to sampling all of a population.

The sample would generalize only to similar programs in similar

cities.
It looks just like cluster sampling.
The major difference is that the clusters of research participants
are selected by convenience rather than by a random process.

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 Cont’d………..

• Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling or accidental or haphazard sampling.

• A type of non probability sampling which involves the sample being drawn from that
part of the population which is close to hand. That is, readily available and convenient.

• The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically make generalizations about the
total population from this sample because it would not be representative enough.

• This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.

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 3. Quota sampling

It is a method that ensures a certain number of sample units from different categories
with specific characteristics are represented. The investigator interviews as many people
in each category of study unit as he can find until he has filled his quota.
It is the non-probability equivalent of stratified sampling. This differs from stratified
sampling, where the stratums are filled by random sampling.
The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups, just as in
stratified sampling.
Then judgment used to select subjects or units from each segment based on a specified
proportion.
For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300 males between
the age of 45 and 60.
It is this second step which makes the technique one of non-probability sampling.

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 Cont’d
• In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-random.

• For example interviewers might be tempted to interview those who look most helpful.
The problem is that these samples may be biased because not everyone gets a chance of
selection.

• This random element is its greatest weakness and quota versus probability has been a
matter of controversy for many years

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 4. Snowball sampling
It is a special non-probability method used when the desired sample
characteristic is rare.
Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate
additional subjects.
What we need to do in case of snowball sampling is that first identify
someone who meets the criteria and then let him/her bring the other he/she
knew.
• Selection of additional respondents is based on referrals from the initial
respondents.
• friends of friends
• Used to sample from low incidence or rare populations.

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 Sample Size Determination
Determining the sample size for a study is a crucial component of study to include
sufficient numbers of subjects so that statistically significant results can be detected.

"How large a sample do I need?“

The answer will depend on the aims, nature and scope of the study and on the expected
result. All of which should be carefully considered at the planning stage.
It also depend on the budget you have.

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 Sample Size………...
There are several approaches to determining the sample size.
Depending on the type of response variable, whether it is categorical or continuous, we
will have two sets of formulas.
The sample size determination formulas come from the formulas for the maximum error
of the estimates and is derived by solving for n.
Sample for Single population
To estimate sample size for single survey using simple or systematic random
sampling, need to know:
oEstimate of the prevalence of the outcome
o Precision desired
o Design effect
o Size of total population
oLevel of confidence (always use 95%)
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 The design effect formula to approximately
5 percentage-point precision at 95%
confidence.

Sample
Size
Where:
• z = 1.96 (95% confidence)
• p = anticipated coverage (reported
Design coverage reported, say 80%).
• d = desired margin of error (e.g., 5%)

effect • DEFF = 2.0 (assumptions of survey’s

complex design)
• r = nonresponse rate (presuming
10% nonresponse rate). Final sample
will be adjusted for non-response
(10%).
 Cochran 1963 and Yamane 1967
• Yamane: For finite populations Cochran: sample size determination for single
population proportion is defined as:
Large or infinite populations

z22 * p (1  p )
• n is sample size need n 2
w
• N is the Population size Where α = the level of significance which can be
• e is the acceptable marginal error obtained as 1- confidence level.
P = best estimate of population proportions
Why using it? W = maximum acceptable difference
• Population size is known the value under standard normal table for the
given value of confidence level
• Simple random sampling Adjusted using FPC:
• You want a quick, practical estimate
• Common in social science, education,
and health facility surveys 36
 Example 1: Cochran’s formula

One of MPH student want to conduct a research on the prevalence of ANC utilization of
mothers in DABAT district. Given that the prevalence from the previous study found to
be 45.7% , what will be the sample size he should take to address his objective?
Solution:
 Margin of error d= 5%
 A confidence level of 95% will give the value of as Zα/2=1.96.
 Then using the formula :

2 2
 Z  P (1  P )  Z 
 0.05  0.457 (1  0.457 )
n  2 
2
 2 

W 0.05 2


1.96  0.457(0.543)
2

0.05 2
382

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