Basic Maintenance of

Battery Bank and DC System

By
K.M.S.C. Somarathna
Area Chief Engineer (Gampaha)
 Battery
BATTERIES -
....the heart of a back-up power system
If inverters are the main brain to a power
system, then batteries are the "heart" of
such a system.
batteries require constant monitoring and
regular maintenance.
"few batteries die - most are killed" by
neglect and poor maintenance
Sad but true!
 History of the Battery
 1800 - The Voltaic Pile
 1836 - The Daniell cell
1844 - The Grove cell
 1859 - The lead-acid cell: the first rechargeable battery
 1860s - The gravity cell
 1866 - The Leclanché cell
 1887 - The zinc-carbon cell: the first dry cell
 1899 - The nickel-cadmium battery: the first alkaline battery
 1903 - The nickel-iron battery
 1955 - The common alkaline battery
 Early 1970s - The nickel hydrogen battery
 Late 1980s - The nickel metal-hydride battery
1970s and 1990s - The lithium and lithium-ion batteries
History of the Battery
In 1749, Benjamin
Franklin first used the
term "battery" to
describe a set of
linked Capacitors he
used for his
experiments with
electricity.
These capacitors were
panels of glass coated
with metal on each
surface.
 In
History of the battery
1800 - The Voltaic Pile1780, Luigi
Galvani was
dissecting a frog
affixed to a brass
hook.
When he touched its
leg with his iron
scalpel, the leg
twitched.
Galvani believed the
energy that drove
this contraction
came from the leg
 History of the Battery
1800 - The Voltaic Pile
Alessandro Volta, a friend and fellow scientist,
disagreed, believing this phenomenon was actually
caused by two different metals being joined
together by a moist intermediary.
He experimentally verified this hypothesis, and
published it in 1791.
In 1800 Volta invented the first true battery which
came to be known as the Voltaic Pile.
The Voltaic Pile consisted of pairs of copper and
zinc discs piled on top of each other, separated by
a layer of cloth or cardboard soaked in brine (i.e.
the electrolyte).
History of the Battery
1836 - The Daniell cell
A British chemist
named John Fredric
Daniell searched for
a way to eliminate
the hydrogen bubble
problem found in the
Voltaic Pile, and his
solution was to use a
second electrolyte to
consume the
hydrogen produced
by the first.
 History of the Battery
1836 - The Daniell cell
In 1836, he invented the Daniell Cell, which
consisted of a copper pot filled with a copper
sulphate solution, in which was immersed an
unglazed earthenware container filled with
sulphuric acid and a zinc electrode.
The earthenware barrier was porous, which
allowed ions to pass through but kept the solutions
from mixing.
The Daniel cell provided a longer and more
reliable current than the Voltaic cell because the
electrolyte deposited copper (a conductor) rather
than hydrogen (an insulator) on the cathode.
 History of the Battery
1844 - The Grove cell

The Grove Cell was invented by William Robert

Grove in 1844. It consisted of a zinc anode dipped
in sulfuric acid and a platinum cathode dipped in
nitric acid, separated by porous earthenware.
The Grove cell provided a high current and nearly
twice the voltage of the Daniell cell.
However, it gave off poisonous nitric oxide fumes
when operated.
platinum was also very expensive.
The Grove cell was replaced by the cheaper, safer
and better performing gravity cell in the 1860s.
 History of the Battery
1859 - The lead-acid cell: the first rechargeable battery
Up to this point, all
existing batteries would
be permanently drained
when all their chemical
reactions were spent.
In 1859, Gaston Plante
invented the lead-acid
battery, the first ever
battery that could be
recharged by passing a
reverse current through
it.
 History of the Battery
1859 - The lead-acid cell: the first rechargeable battery

A lead acid cell consists of a lead anode and a

lead dioxide cathode immersed in sulphuric
acid.
 Both electrodes react with the acid to
produce lead sulfate, but the reaction at the
lead anode releases electrons whilst the
reaction at the lead dioxide consumes them to
produce a current.
These chemical reactions can be reversed by
passing a reverse current through the
battery, thereby recharging it.
History of the Battery
1860s - The gravity cell
The gravity cell
consisted of a glass jar,
in which a copper
cathode sat on the
bottom and a zinc anode
was suspended beneath
the rim.
Copper sulfate crystals
would be scattered
around the cathode and
then the jar would be
filled with distilled
water.
 History of the Battery
1860s - The gravity cell
As the current was drawn, a layer of zinc sulfate
solution would form at the top around the anode.
This top layer was kept separate from the bottom
copper sulfate layer by its lower density and by
the polarity of the cell.
The zinc sulfate layer was clear in contrast to the
deep blue copper sulfate layer, which allowed a
technician to measure the battery life with a
glance.
This setup meant the battery could only be used in
a stationary appliance, else the solutions would
mix or spill.
History of the Battery
1866 - The Leclanché cell
In 1866, Georges Leclanche
invented a battery that
consisted of a zinc anode
and a manganese dioxide
cathode wrapped in a
porous material, dipped in a
jar of ammonium chloride
solution.
The manganese dioxide
cathode had a little carbon
mixed into it as well, which
improved electrolyte
conductivity and absorption.
 History of the Battery
1887 - The zinc-carbon cell: the first dry cell
In 1886 Carl Gassner obtained a German
patent on a variant of the Leclanché cell
which came to be known as the dry cell
because it did not have a free liquid
electrolyte.
Instead, the ammonium chloride was mixed
with Plaster of Paris to create a paste, with a
small amount of zinc chloride added in to
extend the shelf life.
The manganese dioxide cathode was dipped
in this paste, and both were sealed in a zinc
shell which also acted as the anode.
 History of the Battery
1899 - The nickel-cadmium battery: the first alkaline battery
In 1899, a Swedish scientist named
Waldemar Jungner invented the nickel-
cadmium battery, a rechargeable battery that
had nickel and cadmium electrodes in a
potassium hydroxide solution.
 The first battery to use an alkaline
electrolyte.
The first models were robust and had
significantly better energy density than lead-
acid batteries, but were much more
expensive.
 History of the Battery
1903 - The nickel-iron battery
Jungner also invented a nickel-iron battery
the same year as his Ni-Cad battery.
It produced a lot more hydrogen gas when
being charged, meaning it couldn't be sealed,
and the charging process was less efficient.
1955 - The common alkaline battery
Until the late 1950s the zinc-carbon battery
continued to be a popular primary cell
battery, but it has relatively low battery life.
 Types and Usage of Batteries
Lead – Acid (Vehicles, Industrial Battery Banks)
Nickel – Cadmium (Industrial Power Supplies)
Nickel – Metal Hydride (Hybrid Cars)
Lithium – Iron (Cameras, Mobile Phones, Laptops)
Lithium – Polymer (Laptops, Low Weight Aero
Planes)
Alkaline – (Cameras, Clocks)
Silver Oxide – (Button Cells for Calculators and
Watches)
Lithium – (Computer CMOS Battery)
 Lead – Acid Battery
They consist of lead plates in a sulfuric acid
solution.
Life span depends on usage; 6 months to 48
months, yet only 30% of all batteries actually
reach the 48-month mark.
The best lead-acid batteries may achieve 20
years. Dischar
ge
The chemical formula of Lead – Acid Battery
Charg
e

PbO2 + Pb + H2SO4 2PbSO4 + 2H2O

Lead – Acid Battery
 Nickel – Cadmium Battery
Nickel – Cadmium Battery is the most
reliable battery in the market.
It uses Nickel Hydroxide as the active
material for the positive plate and Cadmium
Hydroxide for the negative plate.
Nominal Voltage is 1.2 Volts.
Electrolyte is an aqueous solution of
Potassium Hydroxide containing small
quantities of Lithium Hydroxide to improve
cycle life and high temperature operation.
 Nickel – Cadmium Battery
Electrolyte is only used for ion transfer, it is not
chemically changed or degraded during the charge/
discharge cycle.
The support structure of both positive and negative
plates is steel, and un affected by electrolyte.
The charge/ discharge cycle of Ni-Cd battery
Dischar
ge
2NiOOH + 2H2O + CdCharg 2Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2
e
Unlike the Lead-Acid Battery, there is little change in
the electrolyte density during charge and discharge.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Nickel
– Cadmium battery over Lead – Acid
Battery
Advantages:
They are longer life. The best lead-acid batteries may
achieve 20 years whereas the nickel alloys can have a
50 year life.
Maintenance is lower due to higher voltage
characteristics and their ability to sit partially or totally
discharged for extended periods of time without failure.
Battery voltage on the nickel alloy batteries does not
follow the basically linear pattern of the lead-acid
batteries during discharge so much more of the rated
amp hour capacity is actually available at the practical
level.
Advantages and Disadvantages
of Nickel – Cadmium battery
over Lead – Acid Battery
The nickel alloy batteries can be repeatedly
completely discharged without damage or loss of
battery life.
The nickel alloy batteries are not easily damaged
by severe cold and retain higher discharge
potential than the lead-acid in colder
temperatures.
Nickel alloy batteries have lower internal
resistance so matching batteries of differing ages
and sizes in a battery bank is much easier than
with lead-acid batteries.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Nickel – Cadmium battery over
Lead – Acid Battery
Disadvantages:
The initial cost of purchasing a nickel alloy battery
bank is very high compared to lead-acid.
The broad charging voltage range creates some
compatibility problems which have to be addressed
when matching the nickel alloy batteries to other
equipment such as inverters or chargers.
Their non-linear discharge rate makes the charge
state of the nickel alloy batteries more difficult to
monitor.
The nickel alloy batteries are often not as easily
disposed of as lead-acid batteries when their useful
life has ended.
 Maintenance of Battery Bank
Think, Safety First
Remove all jewelry from hands.
Wear safety goggles and plastic gloves.
Work away from open flames and no smoking.
Hydrogen gas that batteries make when charging
is very explosive.
Sulfuric Acid eats up cotton clothing, but does not
affect polyester or wool
Exercise extreme caution around batteries. Keep
children, pets, and stupid people away from them.
 Maintenance of Battery Bank
First Aid Measures

In contact with electrolyte,

 Inhalation
Allow breathing of Fresh Air.
Rinse mouth & nose with water.
Medical Treatment.

 Skin Contact
Rinse immediately with plenty of water.
Medical Treatment
 Maintenance of Battery Bank
 Eye Contact
Rinse immediately with plenty of water for at
least 15-30 minutes.
Immediate hospital treatment.

 Ingestion
If the injured is fully conscious, plenty of
water to drink.
Do not induce vomiting.
Immediately send to hospital for treatment.
 Maintenance of Battery Bank
Fire Fighting Measures

 Extinguishing Media
Use Class D-Dry chemical and/ or sand.
Do not use water.

 Special Exposure Hazards

If overheated by an external source or by internal shorting
the cell may give off potassium hydroxide mist and/ or
hydrogen gas.
In fire situation fumes containing Cadmium and Nickel
compounds may develop.
Danger of acute damage to health by inhalation of fumes.
 Maintenance of Battery Bank
 Special Protective Equipment
Use self contained breathing apparatus and full
fire fighting protective clothing.

Accidental Release Measures

Flush electrolyte spillage with plenty of water.
Beware risk of slipping.
The electrolyte,
Harmful if swallowed
Causes severe burns
 Maintenance of Battery Bank
The reasons that most batteries fail prematurely are
related to one or more of the following:

 Excessive cycling
 Improper charging
 Lack of temperature control
 Installation
 Manufacturing problems
 Operational issues

Note that the user has control over most of the

conditions that lead to premature failure.
 Maintenance of Battery Bank
The battery cabling connections should be kept
clean and tight at all times, and inspected at least
annually. Anti-corrosion chemicals can be used to
keep them clean and fit; petroleum jelly works well.

All new batteries should be fully charged prior to

use.

New batteries need to be gently cycled several

times before reaching full capacity (20 to 50 cycles,
depending on what kind of batteries you have).
 Maintenance of Battery Bank
When maintaining your batteries, it's not a bad
idea to cover all the batteries with canvas or an
old blanket, save for the battery you're
servicing. A dropped wrench could change your
perspective REALLY quickly!
Use only distilled water to replenish batteries.
Add distilled water AFTER charging; Check
levels after charging. The electrolyte level
should be 1/4" below the bottom of the fill well in
the cell cover.
Batteries should never be discharged below 80%
of their rated capacity.
 Maintenance of Battery Bank
The maintenance requirements of older
batteries change. This means longer
charging times, and probably higher finishing
amperage. Older batteries will need more
water, and their capacity will decline.
Avoid charging at temperatures above 120°F
or higher! And be careful above 100°F. The
ideal temperatures for batteries are 55-80°F.
Where multiple batteries are in series,
parallel, or series/parallel, do not mix
batteries differing in age, size or usage level.
 Maintenance of Battery Bank
Use a hydrometer—a tool to test the specific
gravity of each cell in your battery—to give you an
indication of the quality of each cell and true
charge level.
Inactivity can kill a battery. If seasonal usage
is mandated, try the following:
Completely charge the battery before storing.
Remove all electrical connections from the battery.
Store the battery in as cool a place as possible—
but not below 32°F. The colder the temperatures,
the more the rate of self-discharge.
When not in use, boost with a charge every two
months time.
 Maintenance of Battery Bank
A hydrometer is an instrument
used to measure the
specific gravity (or
relative density) of liquids.
Relative density is, the ratio of
the density of the liquid to the
density of water.
The lower the density of the
fluid, the deeper the weighted
float B will sink.
The depth can be read off the
scale A.
 Maintenance of Battery Bank
Operation of the hydrometer is based on
Archimedes' principle.
A solid suspended in a fluid will be buoyed up
by a force equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the submerged part of the
suspended solid.
The lower the density of the substance, the
further the hydrometer will sink.
 Monitoring of Battery Bank
Install a permanently mounted battery monitor
system, capable of continuously making all of
the voltage, current, temperature, and
resistance measurements.
Respond to any out-of-tolerance conditions and
take the corrective action
Trend monthly data from internal cell resistance
measurements and take action as follows.
 If any resistance reading exceeds the baseline
value for that model cell by 50% or more, then
replace the cell without any further testing.
 Monitoring of Battery Bank
If the resistance value is between 20 to 50%
greater than baseline, then perform a
capacity test to verify its state of health. If
capacity is 80% or less, then replace the cell
as soon as possible. If greater than 80%, then
continue to watch for further increases in
resistance.
The capacity testing can be performed on the
entire string offline or can be performed on a
single suspect cell online.
 Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density (mass of
a unit volume) of a substance to the density (mass
of the same unit volume) of a reference substance.
The reference substance is nearly always water for
liquids.
Temperature and pressure must be specified for
both the sample and the reference.
Substances with a specific gravity of 1 are neutrally
buoyant in water.
Specific Gravity greater than one are denser than
water, and so will sink in it.
 Specific Gravity
True specific gravity, can be expressed
mathematically as:
 Specific Gravity Readings
Testing open circuit voltage is not a proper
way to understand the health of batteries.
Using a hydrometer to test for specific
gravity can be a quick and easy way to assess
the state of charge, as well as the health of
deep cycle battery bank.
This test is also useful if you suspect a single
bad battery in your bank or a bad cell in a
single battery.
 Specific Gravity Readings
Start by taking the load off your batteries
momentarily. Do not perform this test
immediately after adding distilled water to
your batteries.
Start by filling up, then draining out the
hydrometer a few times. This stirs up the
electrolyte and ensures an accurate reading.
Fill the hydrometer with enough electrolyte
to float the indicator.
Note down your specific gravity reading and
repeat for the rest of the cells in each battery.
 Specific Gravity Readings
Now, we have a set of readings for all cells in our
battery bank.
The appropriate readings vary based on the
temperature of the battery.
Take (or estimate) the temperature of the bank and
do the following.
Add .004 to the reading for every 10 Degrees F
above 80 degrees.
Subtract .004 from the reading for every 10 Degrees
F below 80 degrees.
Compare to The Manufacturer's Readings
 Specific Gravity Readings
 A typical deep cycle battery might have temperature normalized
specific gravity readings as follows:

100% Charged = 1.277

90% Charged = 1.258
80% Charged = 1.238
70% Charged = 1.217
60% Charged = 1.195
50% Charged = 1.172

 Values are stopping at 50% charged because if you are discharging

your batteries further than this, you are damaging them.
 They should never be discharged further than 50%.
 Use the battery manufacturer's specific gravity chart. If the
manufacturer chart is not available, use the above chart as an
approximation.
3 Step Charging Cycle
 3 Step Charging Cycle
Bulk Charge Mode: During this time,
the battery is fully or partially
discharged
During bulk charge mode, the charger
current is flat (constant) and the
battery voltage is rising.
Absorption Charge Mode: At this time
the battery is approximately 80%
recharged.
The charge current is falling and the
battery voltage is flat (constant).
 3 Step Charging Cycle
 Equalization Charge Mode : At
this time the battery is
approximately 95% recharged.
The higher constant voltage, or
the lower true constant current
perform recharge function.
That is to safely replenish the
last 5% of the battery’s charge, in
a minimum amount of time.