Analog Circuits - I

Unit 4 / Feedback Amplifiers & Oscillators

Prepared
By
Dr. K. Umapathy

1
 Syllabus
• Feedback topologies-voltage series, current
series, voltage shunt, current shunt, effect of
feedback on gain, bandwidth, noise and non-
linear distortion.
• Oscillators-Introduction, Bark-hausen Criterion,
Analysis of RC oscillators, LC oscillators.

2
Feedback Amplifiers

3
 Topic 1

Introduction
to
Feedback Amplifiers

4
 Introduction
• An ideal amplifier in the mid-frequency region provides
an output signal which is a replica of the input signal.
• But the practical amplifiers depart from the ideal for
many reasons such as transistor non-linear
characteristics, parameter variation, temperature effects
etc.
• Some of above factors can be minimized by improving
the involved basic devices.
• The best approach is to use the principle of feedback to
achieve better degree of improvement.
• Feedback is a process by which a part of the output
signal is fed back to the input. The amplifiers using this
principle are called feedback amplifiers. 5
 Types of Feedback
• There are two basic types of feedback in amplifiers.
• 1) Positive Feedback:
– The applied feedback signal is in phase with the input
signal and increases it
– Also called regenerative feedback or direct feedback.
– Used in Oscillator Circuits.
• 2) Negative Feedback:
– The applied feedback signal not in phase with the input
signal and decreases it.
– Also called degenerative feedback or inverse feedback.
– Used in amplifier circuits.

6
Fig 1 & 2 / Amplifiers with and Without Feedback

7
 Principle of Feedback
• Figure 1 shows an amplifier without feedback. The voltage
gain is the ratio of output voltage to input voltage –
• AV = Vo / Vin ; Where AV is called open loop voltage gain.
• Figure 2 shows the amplifier with feedback. The addition of
feedback changes the values of the amplifier for voltage
gain, input and output voltages.
• Let (β) – fraction of the output voltage fed into the input
and AV’ is the voltage gain of the feedback amplifier.
• The feedback circuit injects a fraction (β) of the output
voltage (Vo’) and return it to the input voltage whose value
changes to Vin ± β.Vo.
• The value of the input voltage is Vin + βVo if feedback is
positive and the value is Vin – βVo if feedback is negative. 8
• The input voltage is amplified and the value of output
voltage –
• AV (Vin + β.Vo) = Vo
• Rearranging the above equation-
• Vo / Vin = AV / (1- β.AV) = AV’ ;
• Where AV’ is the voltage gain of the feedback amplifier.
• The value of β is positive and negative for positive
feedback and negative feedback respectively.
• For negative feedback,
• AV’ = AV / (1 + β.AV)
• The term (β.AV) is called loop gain. The difference
between unit and loop gain (1- β.AV) is called return
difference or de-sensitivity. 9
 Negative Feedback
• In the expression for voltage gain of negative feedback,
if the term (1 + β.AV) > 1, the value of AV’ is smaller than
AV .
• The gain of negative feedback amplifier is less than the
loop gain.
• Hence negative feedback reduces the gain of amplifier
but stabilizes it.
• The voltage gain is not affected by parameter variation,
supply voltage, aging of components etc.
• The stability can be achieved only if the feedback
network is made up of stable elements such as resistors,
inductors and capacitors.
10
• If the term β.AV >> 1, then (1 + β.AV) = β.AV
• Hence AV’ = AV / β.AV = 1 / β
• The voltage gain of feedback amplifier depends upon
the feedback ratio (β).

11
 Positive Feedback
• In the expression for voltage gain of negative feedback,
if the term (1 - β.AV) < 1, the value of AV’ is greater than
AV .
• The gain of positive feedback amplifier is greater than
the loop gain.
• Hence positive feedback increases the gain of amplifier
but producing oscillations.
• When the product β. AV becomes equal to unity, then
the term (1- β.AV) is equal to zero.
• Hence the voltage gain of the positive feedback
amplifier becomes infinity.
• The amplifier becomes an oscillator which supplies it
own input. 12
 Advantages & Disadvantages of Negative Feedback
• Advantages:
– Increased Stability
– Increased Bandwidth
– Less amplitude and harmonic distortion
– Decreased noise
– Less frequency and phase distortion
– Input and output resistances modified
• Disadvantages:
– Reduces the gain of the amplifier

13
 Advantages & Disadvantages of Positive
Feedback
• Advantages:
– Increased Gain/Amplification
– Boosts Confidence and Morale
– Enhances Performance
– Fosters Relationships
– Creates Stability (in specific applications)
• Disadvantages:
– Instability
– Increased Distortion
– Reduced sensitivity

14
 Topic 2

Effect of Negative Feedback on

Amplifier Gain

15
 Effect of Feedback on Gain
• The use of negative feedback reduces the voltage gain
of the amplifier and depends upon the feedback
network.
• But the voltage gain of the feedback amplifier does not
change with transistor parameter variation,
temperature variation, aging etc.
• The use of negative feedback provides a greater
stability to the voltage gain of the amplifier.
• The voltage gain - AV’ = AV / (1 + β.AV)
• Taking natural logarithm on both sides of above eqn-
• loge AV’ = loge [AV / (1 + β.AV)]
= loge AV – loge (1 + β.AV)
16
• Differentiating on both sides –

• The derivative of β is dβ is zero because the feedback

network consists of stable elements such resistors,
capacitors and inductors. Hence

17
• The term 1 / (1 + β.AV) is called sensitivity. It indicates
the ratio of percentage change in voltage gain with
feedback to the percentage change in voltage gain
without feedback.
• The sensitivity is given by –
• dAV’ / AV’ / dAV / AV = 1 / (1 + β.AV)
• The reciprocal of sensitivity is called de-sensitivity given
by - (1 + β.AV).
• De-sensitivity = AV / AV’
• Sensitivity = AV’ / AV

18
 Gain with Negative Feedback
• In a negative feedback amplifier having Aβ =1; the gain
with feedback is Af = 1/β.
• If the feedback network is purely resistive, the gain with
feedback is not dependent on the frequency.
• Practically the frequency distortion arising will be
reduced in a negative feedback amplifier circuit.
• In Figure 1, the use of negative feedback reduces the
gain of the amplifier.

19
Fig 1 / Reduction in Gain

20
 Topic 3

Effect of Negative Feedback on

Amplifier Bandwidth

21
 Effect of Feedback on Bandwidth
• Consider an amplifier whose bandwidth to be found out
when subjected to negative feedback.
• The negative feedback increases the bandwidth of the
amplifier by a factor equal to (1 + β.AV).
• Hence BW’ = (1 + β.AV) BW
Where BW’ – bandwidth of amplifier with feedback
AV – Voltage gain without feedback
BW – bandwidth of amplifier without feedback
AV’ - Voltage gain with feedback
 The voltage gain of a feedback amplifier reduces by the
same factor by which bandwidth is increased - (1 +
β.AV).
22
 Lower Cut off Frequency
• We know that the gain of the amplifier with feedback is
given by –

• Using the above equation, we can rewrite –

23
• The relation between gain at lower cut off frequency
and gain at mid-frequency is given by –

• Therefore-

24
 Upper Cut off Frequency
• Where the lower cut off frequency with feedback is
given by –

• Similarly the upper cut off frequency with feedback is

given by –

• The bandwidth of the amplifier without feedback is

given by –
BW = f2 – f1
• The bandwidth of the amplifier with feedback is
given by –
BW’ = f2’ – f1’ 25
26
 Bandwidth & Gain
• The product of voltage gain & bandwidth of an amplifier
without feedback and with feedback remains the same.
• The bandwidth of an amplifier is given by the separation
between the upper and lower 3 dB frequencies.
BW = f2 – f1
• With negative feedback, the upper and lower 3 dB
frequencies are given by –
f2’ = (1 + β.AV).f2
f1’ = f1 / (1 + β.AV)
• The upper frequency f2’ is greater than f2 by a factor of
(1 + β.AV) and lower frequency f1’ is lower than f1 by a
factor (1 + β.AV). 27
 Product of Bandwidth & Gain
• Since the product of voltage gain and bandwidth of an
amplifier without feedback and with feedback remains
the same –
AV’ . BW’ = AV. BW
AV’ (f2’–f1’) = AV. (f2- f1)
• Figure 1 shows the frequency response of amplifier with
and without feedback.

28
 Topic 4

Effect of Negative Feedback on

Noise

29
 Signal to Noise Ratio
• Negative feedback reduces the noise or interference in
an amplifier more precisely by increasing the signal to
noise ratio which is possible under certain conditions.
• The output voltage of the circuit from Figure 1 can be
obtained by superposition theorem and it is given by –

• The signal to noise ratio at the output is given by –

=

30
Fig 1 / SNR in Amplifier

31
 Effect of Feedback on Noise
• There are many sources of noise in an amplifier
depending upon the active device used in the
circuit.
• With feedback, the magnitude of noise N is reduced
by a factor of (1 + β.AV) in a similar manner to
distortion.
• The amplifier noise with feedback is given by –

32
 Topic 5

Effect of Negative Feedback on

Distortion

33
 Open Loop Gain Vs Closed Loop Gain
• The transfer characteristics of an amplifier can be
linearized by applying negative feedback.
• Negative feedback reduces the dependence of closed
loop gain on the open loop gain of the basic amplifier.
• Thus large changes in open loop gain results in much
smaller changes in the closed loop gain.
• The closed loop and open loop transfer characteristics
of the amplifier without and with feedback are shown
as curves (a) and (b) respectively in Figure 1.
• The slope of the steepest segment is given by-

34
• The slope of the next segment is given by-

• The order of magnitude of the curve changes in slope

with feedback as shown in (a) has been reduced when
compared to change in slope without feedback as
shown in (b).
• This is achieved at the expense of reduction in voltage
gain.
• If the voltage gain is to restored, a pre-amplifier has to
be added.

35
Fig 1 / Non-linear Distortion

36
 Expression for Distortion Factor
• Consider a large amplitude signal applied to a stage of an
amplifier so that the operation of the transistor extend
slightly beyond the range of linear operation.
• Now the output signal is slightly distorted.
• If negative feedback is applied to the amplifier stage, then the
voltage gain reduces.
• If the input signal is increased by the same amount by which
the gain is reduced, the output signal amplitude remains the
same.
• The distortion has reduced due to feedback by a factor (1 +
β.AV).
• The amplifier distortion with feedback –

• where D is the distortion without feedback. 37

 Topic 6

Feedback Topologies

38
 Types of Feedback Connections
• There are four types of connecting the feedback signal
from an amplifier output to its input.
1) Voltage Series Feedback
2) Voltage Shunt Feedback
3) Current Series feedback
4) Current Shunt Feedback
• Both voltage and current can be feedback to the input
either in series or parallel.
• The term ‘voltage’ means connecting the output voltage
as input to the feedback network.
• The term ‘current’ means tapping off some output
current through the feedback network.
39
• The terms ‘series’ and ‘shunt’ means connecting the
feedback signal in series with input signal or parallel
with input signal respectively.
• The series feedback connections tend to increase the
input resistance whereas the shunt feedback
connections will decrease the input resistance.
• The voltage feedback will decrease the output
resistance whereas the current feedback tend to
increase the output resistance.

40
 Voltage Series Feedback Connection
• Also called shunt derived or series fed feedback
connection.
• In figure 1, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in
series with the input voltage through the feedback
network.
• However the input to the feedback network is in parallel
with output of the amplifier.
• The voltage series feedback connection increase the
input resistance and decrease the output resistance of
the feedback amplifier.
• The input resistance of feedback amplifier –

41
Fig 1 / Voltage Series Feedback

42
• Where –
β – feedback fraction
AV – voltage gain without feedback
Ri – input resistance without feedback
• The output resistance of the feedback amplifier –

Where Ro – output resistance without feedback

• The voltage series feedback connection reduces the
voltage gain of the amplifier given by –

43
 Voltage Shunt Feedback Connection
• Also called shunt derived or shunt fed feedback
connection.
• Figure 2 shows the block diagram of a voltage shunt
feedback connection.
• In this connection, a fraction of the output voltage is
applied in parallel with the input voltage through the
feedback network.
• The voltage shunt network connection decreases both
input and output resistances of the feedback amplifier
by a factor of (1 + β.AV).
• Hence – ;

44
Fig 2 / Voltage Shunt Feedback

45
 Current Series Feedback Connection
• Also called series derived or series fed connection as
shown in Figure 3.
• In this connection, a fraction of the output current is
converted into a proportional voltage by the feedback
network and then applied in series with the input.
• The current series feedback connection increases both
input and output resistances of the feedback amplifier
by a factor equal to (1 + β.AV).
• Thus –
Ri’ = Ri (1 + β.AV)
Ro’ = Ro (1 + β.AV)

46
Fig 3 / Current Series Feedback

47
 Current Shunt Feedback Connection
• Also called series derived or shunt fed feedback
connection as shown in Figure 4.
• In this connection, a fraction of the output current is
converted into a proportional voltage by the feedback
network and then applied in parallel with the input.
• The current shunt feedback connection decreases the
input resistance and increases the output resistances of
the feedback amplifier by a factor equal to (1 + β.AV).
• Thus –

Ro’ = Ro (1 + β.AV)

48
Fig 4 / Current Shunt Feedback

49
 Comparison of Feedback Topologies
S. Type of Feedback Input Output
No Connection Resistance Resistance
1 Voltage Series Increases Decreases
2 Voltage Shunt Decreases Decreases
3 Current Series Increases Increases
4 Current Shunt Decreases Increases

50
 Applications of Negative Feedback
1. Widely used in electronic amplifiers to achieve desired
performance.
2. Used in all modern high gain transistor amplifier used
for radio & television receivers, stereo systems etc.
3. Used in regulated power supply circuits and in circuits
where impedance matching required.

51
 Topic 7

Voltage Series Feedback Amplifier

52
Fig 1 / Voltage Series Feedback Amplifier

53
 Voltage Series Feedback Amplifier
• The negative feedback is very useful in multi-stage
transistor amplifiers.
• Figure 1 shows the a cascaded transistor amplifier with
voltage series feedback.
• Here voltage divider biasing scheme is followed for both
amplifier stages.
• C1 and C5 are the input coupling and output coupling
capacitors respectively.
• RC coupling is applied for feeding the output of first
stage to the input of the second stage.
• RE, C3 and RE’, C4 are the emitter resistors and emitter
bypass capacitors used for providing ac ground to both
stages. 54
• The cascaded amplifier stages with transistors Q1 and Q2
provides an overall voltage gain.
• A feedback network consists of resistors R3 and R4
coupled by a capacitor C6 (to block dc) between the
output and input.
• The feedback signal is taken from the collector of the
second stage and connected to the emitter of the first
amplifier stage.
• The in-phase output signal of the second stage
connected through the feedback network to the emitter
opposes the input signal between the base emitter
junction of the transistor of the first stage.

55
 Circuit Analysis
• An approximate analysis can be made if the open-loop
gain is assumed to be very large and I′ << 1. Under such
conditions, we have Vin ≈ 0 for a finite Vout and the supply
voltage is given by -

• Thus –

• The overall gain with negative feedback is given by –

• From the above equation it is obvious that under the

above conditions the voltage gain is independent of all
parameters except R1 and R2. Thus, if these resistors are
stable, the circuit amplification is stabilized. 56
 Applications
• Voltage series feedback amplifiers are used in audio and
video amplifiers, measurement and control systems,
and medical equipment.
• Their ability to provide stable voltage gain, high input
impedance and low output impedance makes them
ideal for applications requiring accurate and reliable
voltage amplification.

57
 Topic 8

Current Series Feedback Amplifier

58
Fig 1 / Current Series Feedback Amplifier

59
 Current Series Feedback Amplifier
• Figure 1 shows the circuit of a common emitter
amplifier without emitter bypass capacitor.
• Base biasing scheme is applied.
• The coupling capacitors couple the input signal to the
base of transistor and the output signal from the
collector terminal at the input side and output side
respectively.
• This circuit has a current series feedback.
• The current passing through RE results in a voltage which
is opposite to that of the input signal.
• Therefore the output voltage is reduced.

60
• In order to remove the current-series feedback, the
emitter resistor must be removed or bypassed by a
capacitor.
• The voltage gain of CE amplifier without feedback –

Where

61
 Circuit Analysis
• When an input signal is applied, the resulting collector
IC develops output voltage across the collector load
and emitter current IE develops ac voltage equal to
IERE or ICRE (IE ≈ IC) across the emitter.
• Thus input voltage to amplifier is equal to Vbe, given as
–

Since

• The gain with negative feedback is given by –

= if 62
 Example 2 / Current Series Feedback Amplifier
• Figure 2 shows another example for current series
feedback – common collector amplifier or emitter
follower.
• The negative feedback is produced in the same way
similar to that of common emitter amplifier without
emitter bypass capacitor.
• In an emitter follower – the feedback ratio is equal to
unity – β = 1
• Hence the overall voltage gain of the amplifier is
approximately unity - AV = AV’ = 1

63
Fig 2 / Current Series Feedback Amplifier

64
 Applications
• Such a negative feedback is widely employed in
practical amplifiers such as in public address systems,
record-players, tape recorders, stereo-amplifiers etc.
• Sometimes, only a part of the emitter resistance is
bypassed so that the amplifier gain is not much
reduced and at the same time advantages of negative
feedback are achieved.

65
 Topic 9

Voltage Shunt Feedback Amplifier

66
Fig 1 / Voltage Shunt Feedback Amplifier

67
 Voltage Shunt Feedback Amplifier
• Figure 1 shows the circuit of a collector feedback biased
common emitter amplifier.
• The coupling capacitors couple the input signal to the
base of transistor and the output signal from the
collector terminal at the input side and output side
respectively.
• This circuit is an example for voltage shunt feedback.
• The feedback is obtained by coupling a portion of the
output voltage to the base of the transistor through the
resistor RB.
• The voltage shunt feedback connection provides a
stabilized overall gain.
• It reduces the input and output resistances. 68
 Circuit Analysis
• The feedback current is given by –

• Assuming the source current and feedback current equal –

IS = I f
= =-
• Thus the trans-resistance equals the negative of the
feedback resistance from output to input of the transistor
and is stable if RB is a stable resistance.
• Both input and output resistances are reduced because the
feedback network shunts both input and output of the
amplifier.

69
• Assuming input impedance to be zero, voltage gain with
feedback is given by –

• Thus if resistors RB and Rs are stable elements, then

voltage gain is stable independent of the transistor
parameters, the temperature and supply voltage
variations.

70
 Applications
• Voltage shunt feedback amplifiers are used in
applications requiring high gain, stability, and reduced
distortion.
• Such as audio amplifiers for high-fidelity sound, voltage
regulators to stabilize voltage levels and low impedance
measurement devices for accurate readings.
• They are also utilized in other signal processing circuits
where precise signal manipulation is needed.

71
 Topic 10

Current Shunt Feedback Amplifier

72
Fig 1 / Current Shunt Feedback Amplifier

73
 Current Shunt Feedback Amplifier
• The negative feedback is very useful in multi-stage
transistor amplifiers.
• Figure 1 shows the a cascaded transistor amplifier with
voltage shunt feedback.
• Here voltage divider biasing scheme is followed for both
amplifier stages.
• C1 and C3 are the input coupling and output coupling
capacitors respectively.
• RC coupling is applied for feeding the output of first
stage to the input of the second stage.
• RE, C3 and RE’ are the emitter resistors and emitter
bypass capacitors used for providing ac ground to first
and second stages respectively. 74
• The cascaded amplifier stages with transistors Q1 and Q2
provides an overall voltage gain.
• A feedback network consists of resistors RE’ and R3
coupled by a capacitor C6 (to block dc) between the
output and input.
• The feedback signal is taken from the emitter of the
second stage and connected to the base of the first
amplifier stage.
• The in-phase output current of the second stage
connected through the feedback network to the base
opposes the input signal between the base emitter
junction of the transistor of the first stage

75
Oscillators

76
 Topic 1

Review of Basic Concept -

Barkausen Criterion for Oscillators

77
 Introduction to Oscillators
• An Oscillator circuit is an electronic circuit to produce
the oscillations.
• These oscillations should sustain and should be
undamped.
• The following is a practical Oscillator circuit to have a
better understanding on the working of an Oscillator
circuit .
• A Practical Oscillator circuit consists of a tank circuit, a
transistor amplifier, and a feedback circuit.
• Figure 1 shows the arrangement of a practical
oscillator.

78
 Practical Oscillator Circuit
• Tank Circuit − Consists of an inductance L connected in
parallel with capacitor C. These two components
determine the frequency of the oscillator circuit and
hence this is called as Frequency determining circuit.
• Transistor Amplifier − The output of the tank circuit is
connected to the amplifier circuit so that oscillations
produced by the tank circuit are amplified here.
• Feedback Circuit − It is to transfer a part of the output
energy to LC circuit in proper phase. This feedback is
positive in oscillators while negative in amplifiers.

79
Fig 1 / Practical Oscillator Circuit

80
 Barkhausen Criteria
• From Figure 1, the gain of the amplifier is represented
as A. The gain of the amplifier is the ratio of output
voltage Vo to the input voltage Vi.
• The feedback network extracts a voltage Vf = β Vo from
the output Vo of the amplifier.
• This voltage is added for positive feedback and
subtracted for negative feedback, from the signal
voltage Vs.
• So, for a positive feedback,
• Vi = Vs + Vf = Vs + β Vo
• The quantity β = Vf/Vo is called as feedback ratio .
81
• The output Vo must be equal to the input voltage (Vs +
βVo) multiplied by the gain A of the amplifier.
• Hence (Vs + βVo) A = Vo
• AVs + AβVo = Vo
• Or
• AVs = Vo (1−Aβ)
• Therefore
• Vo / Vs = A / (1−Aβ)
• Let Af be the overall gain (gain with feedback) of the
amplifier. This is defined as the ratio of output voltage
Vo to the applied signal voltage Vs, i.e.,
• Af = Output Voltage / Input Signal Voltage = Vo / Vs
82
• From the above two equations that, the equation of
gain of the feedback amplifier with positive feedback is
given by
• Af = A / (1−Aβ) Where Aβ is the feedback factor or
the loop gain.
• If Aβ = 1, Af = ∞. Thus the gain becomes infinity, i.e.,
there is output without any input.
• The condition Aβ = 1 is called as Barkhausen Criterion
of oscillations.

83
 Topic 2

RC Phase Shift Oscillator

(RC Oscillator)

84
Fig 1 / Transistor RC Phase Shift Oscillator

85
Fig 2 / FET RC Phase Shift Oscillator

86
 Circuit Description
• Figure 1 shows the circuit of RC Phase shift oscillator using
transistor. Figure 2 shows the circuit of RC Phase shift
oscillator using FET.
• The circuit is drawn to show clearly the amplifier and
feedback network.
• Here voltage divider biasing and voltage shunt feedback is
employed.
• The feedback network consists of three sections with each
section producing a phase shift of 60 deg.
• The net phase shift of the feedback network is 180 deg.
• Since the amplifier stage produces a phase shift of 180
deg, the total phase shift between the input and output
comes to 360 deg or 0 deg.
87
 Circuit Operation
• When the circuit is energized by switching the supply,
the circuit starts oscillating.
• The oscillations may start due to minor variations in
the dc supply or inherent noise in the transistor.
• The variations in base current initially and the collector
current are amplified in the collector circuit.
• Then it is fed back through the phase shift network
and finally applied to the base of the transistor.
• The oscillations will be maintained if the loop gain –
Avβ is at least equal to unity.
• However to start the oscillations, the loop gain must
be greater than unity.
88
• Using classical network analysis, the frequency of
oscillation given by –

• The feedback fraction of the RC phase shift network is

given by –

• Using the value of β, it can be calculated that for the

loop gain to be greater than unity, the gain of the
amplifier stage must be greater than 1/β or 29.

89
 Key Considerations
• Loading effect:
Using a BJT in common-emitter configuration can
cause a loading effect on the RC network due to its lower
input impedance. Using a FET in the amplifier stage can
reduce this loading effect
• Frequency Stability:
Using three RC sections provides better frequency
stability compared to designs with fewer stages
• Gain requirement:
The amplifier needs a gain of at least 29 to start and
sustain oscillation because the RC network attenuates the
signal

90
 Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages:
– Low cost design
– Stable output
– Sinusoidal output
– Suitable for low frequencies
Disadvantages:
– Low output amplitude
– Poor frequency stability
– Loading effect
– Not suitable for high frequencies
– Complexity for high gain

91
 Applications
• Particularly used for generating signals in the audio
frequency range.
• Used for generating fixed spot frequencies which can
be selected by switching in preset RC networks.

92
 Topic 3

Wien Bridge Oscillator

(RC Oscillator)

93
Fig 1 / Wien Bridge Oscillator

94
 Circuit Description
• Figure 1 shows the circuit of a Wien bridge oscillator
using transistor.
• The circuit consists of a two stage RC coupled amplifier
which provides 360 or 0 deg phase shift.
• Hence the feedback network need not produce any
additional phase shift.
• The feedback network consists of a lead-lag network –
R1, C1 & R2, C2 and a voltage divider R3, R4.
• The lead-lag network provides a positive feedback to
the input of the first stage and the voltage divider a
negative feedback to the emitter of Q1 transistor.

95
• By using a simple analysis, the frequency of oscillations
of Wien bridge oscillator given by –

• And the ratio of resistors –

• Thus a ratio of R3/R4 if greater than 2 will provide

sufficient gain for the circuit to oscillate at the desired
frequency.
• The oscillator frequency and the frequency range can
be varied by changing the capacitors C1 & C2 and R1 & R2
respectively.

96
 Circuit Operation
• When the circuit is energized by switching on the
supply, the small random variations appearing at the
base of Q1 transistor amplified at its collector, further
amplified at the collector of Q2 transistor.
• Since the above oscillations are inverted twice, they
are in phase with the input signal.
• A part of the output signal is feedback to the Wien
bridge which is further amplified.
• The process will continue till sustained oscillations are
produced.

97
 Key considerations
• Amplifier's gain being greater than 3 to start oscillation
and stabilizing at exactly 3 for steady-state output.
• Requiring an automatic gain control (AGC) circuit to
prevent signal distortion.
• Use of high-precision components to minimize
tolerance issues, maintaining a high input and low
output resistance for the amplifier
• Ensuring the RC network components (R1=R2, C1=C2)
are well-matched for frequency stability.

98
 Advantages & Disadvantages
• Advantages:
– High stability
– Low distortion
– Ease of tuning
– Simple design

• Disadvantages:
– Limited frequency range
– Requires multiple components
– Amplitude distortion
– Gain dependency

99
 Applications
• Signal generation for audio signals
• Function generators
• Tone generators
• Generation of carrier signals
• Medical instrumentation
• Distortion testing

100
 Topic 4

Hartely Oscillator
(LC Oscillator)

101
Fig 1 / Hartely Oscillator

102
Fig 2 / FET Hartley Oscillator

103
 Circuit Description
• Figure 1 shows the circuit of a Hartley Oscillator using
transistor.
• The tank circuit consists of two coils L1 and L2 inductively
coupled to each other and the combination works as an
autotransformer.
• A radio frequency choke connected between the collector
and VCC supply acts as a load for the collector which
permits easy flow of dc current.
• The feedback between the output and input is achieved
through the autotransformer which introduces a phase
shift of 180 deg.
• The tap on the combination of L1 and L2 is actually
connected to the emitter via ground and capacitor CE.
104
• The transistor introduces a phase shift of 180o and the
total phase shift is 360o ,hence the feedback is positive.
• The feedback fraction -

• For the oscillations to start, the voltage gain must be

greater than 1/β which is equal to L1/L2.
• The capacitor CC is called coupling capacitor because it
couples the output signal to the tank circuit.
• The Capacitor CB is called blocking capacitor because it
blocks the dc currents reaching the base terminal.
• The resistors – R1. R2, RE provide dc bias to the
transistor.

105
 Circuit Operation
• When the circuit is energized by switching on the
power supply, the collector current flows.
• The oscillations are produced due to positive feedback
from the tank circuit to the base.
• The frequency of oscillation –

• The output from the tank circuit can be taken out by

means of another coil coupled either to L1 or L2 as
shown in Figure 1.
• Figure 2 shows the Hartley Oscillator design with FET
as the amplifying device.

106
 Key Considerations
• Use of a tapped inductor or two inductors with mutual
inductance.
• Tuning range and frequency stability determined by the
LC circuit.
• Need for a gain greater than the ratio of the two
inductors – L2/L1.
• Circuit is prone to generating a distorted sine wave
with high harmonic content.
• Unsuitable for applications requiring a pure sine wave,
and performance is affected by component variations
and temperature changes.

107
 Advantages & Disadvantages
• Advantages:
– Instead of using a large transformer, a single coil can be used
as an auto-transformer.
– Frequency can be varied by employing either a variable
capacitor or a variable inductor.
– Less number of components sufficient.
– Amplitude of the output remains constant over a fixed
frequency range.
• Disadvantages:
– It cannot be a low frequency oscillator.
– Harmonic distortions are present.

108
 Applications
• It is used to produce a sine wave of desired frequency.
• Mostly used as a local oscillator in radio receivers.
• It is also used as R.F. Oscillator.

109
 Topic 5

Colpitts Oscillator
(LC Oscillator)

110
Fig 1 / Colpitts Oscillator

111
Fig 2 / Colpitts Oscillator – AC Equivalent

112
Fig 3 / FET Colpitts Oscillator

113
 Circuit Description
• It is similar to a Hartely Oscillator except for one difference.
• The Colpitts oscillator uses tapped capacitance instead of
tapped inductance used in Hartely Oscillator.
• Figure 1 shows the circuit of Colpitts Oscillator and Figure 2
shows the ac equivalent of it.
• The tank circuit is made up of two capacitors C1 and C2
connected in series with each other across a fixed inductance
L.
• The capacitor CC is called coupling capacitor because it
couples the output signal to the tank circuit.
• The Capacitor CB is called blocking capacitor because it blocks
the dc currents reaching the base terminal.
• The resistors – R1. R2, RE provide dc bias to the transistor
114
• A radio frequency choke connected between the collector
and VCC supply acts as a load for the collector which permits
easy flow of dc current.
• The feedback between the output and input is achieved by
the voltage developed across capacitor C2.
• The feedback fraction given by –

• For the oscillations to start, the voltage gain AV is given by -

• The frequency of oscillation –

• The points A and B in Figure 1 are 180o out of phase with

each other. Another Phase shift of 180o is achieved by the
transistor.
• The total phase shift is 360o leading to positive feedback. 115
 Circuit Operation
• When the circuit is energized by switching on the
supply, the capacitors C1 and C2 are charged.
• These capacitors discharge through the coil L which
sets up the oscillations at the specified frequency.
• The oscillations across the capacitor C2 are feedback to
the base of transistor and appear in amplified form at
the collector.
• These oscillators are widely used as signal generators
for the frequencies between 1 MHz and 500 MHz
• Figure 3 shows the Colpitts Oscillator design using FET.

116
 Key Considerations
• Using a tank circuit with an inductor and two series
capacitors for frequency setting, adjusting the ratio of
capacitors C1 and C2.
• Ensuring the total phase shift of the amplifier and
feedback network is 360 degrees for sustained
oscillations.
• For frequency stability, the capacitors help swamp out
parasitic capacitance changes and the oscillation
frequency is determined by

117
 Advantages & Disadvantages
• Advantages:
– Stable frequency
– High frequencies
– Simple design

• Disadvantages:
– Design difficulty
– Poor isolation
– High cost
– Limited temperature range

118
 Applications
• Colpitts oscillator is applied in various electronic
circuits to generate stable sinusoidal signals at high
frequencies.
• Key applications include use in radio and mobile
communications as a local oscillator in receivers and as
an RF oscillator.
• It is also used in frequency synthesizers and signal
generators for testing and calibration.
• It has applications in voltage controlled oscillators
(VCOs) and microwave applications.

119
 Topic 6

Crystal Oscillator

120
Fig 1 / Characteristics of Crystal

121
 Characteristics of Crystal
• In a quartz crystal, when a mechanical stress is
applied on one set of faces, a potential difference will
be developed across the opposite faces.
• This crystal property is called piezo-electric effect.
• Similarly when an ac voltage is applied to a crystal,
mechanical vibrations are set up having natural
resonant frequency dependent on the crystal.
• The crystal action can be represented by an electrical
equivalent circuit shown in Figure 1.
• L and C represent the electrical equivalent of crystal
mass and compliance respectively
• R represent the electrical equivalent of crystal
structure’s internal friction. 122
• CM represents the capacitance due to mechanical
mounting of the crystal.
• Due to low crystal losses, the quality factor of crystal is
typically 20,000.
• The crystal has two resonant frequencies – series
resonant condition under which series resonant
impedance is very low (equal to R).
• Another is parallel resonant condition under which
series resonant impedance is very high.

123
 Introduction to Crystal Oscillator
• It is basically a tuned oscillator.
• This oscillator uses a piezo-electric crystal as a
resonant tank circuit.
• The crystal is made up of quartz material which
provides a high degree of frequency stability and
accuracy.
• The crystal oscillators are used for applications where
high frequency stability required – used in
communication transmitters, digital watches, clocks
etc.

124
Fig 2 / Transistor Pierce Crystal Oscillator

125
 Circuit Description
• A variety of crystal oscillators are used in practice such as
crystal controlled tuned collector oscillator, colpitts crystal
oscillator, clapp crystal oscillator etc.
• The pierce crystal oscillator is the most commonly used
circuit in many applications. Figure 2 shows the crystal
oscillator using transistor.
• In this circuit, the crystal is connected as a series element
in the feedback path from collector to base.
• The resistors R1, R2 & RE provide stabilized dc bias to the
transistor.
• The capacitor CE provides the ac bypass of the emitter
resistor and RFC provides the dc bypass on the power lines
from affecting the output signal.
126
 Frequency of Oscillation
• The coupling capacitor ‘C’ has negligible impedance at
the circuit operating frequency and blocks any dc
between collector and base.
• The frequency of oscillation is determined by the
series resonant frequency of the crystal and given by –

• The changes in supply voltage, transistor device

parameters etc have no effect on the circuit operating
frequency which is held stabilized by the crystal.
• Figure 2 shows the FET version of the pierce crystal
oscillator. The advantage of using FET is that it provides
a higher input resistance to the crystal.
127
Fig 2 / FET Pierce Crystal Oscillator

128
 Advantages & Disadvantages
• Advantages:
– High frequency stability
– High quality factor
– Low power consumption
– Low noise
• Disadvantages:
– Limited Tuning Range
– Fragile
– Sensitivity to temperature
– Low frequency limit

129
 Applications
• Crystal oscillators are used to provide a precise and
stable frequency signal for a wide range of applications.
• Key uses include generating system clock for computers
and microcontrollers.
• Synchronizing data transfer in communication systems,
providing accurate timekeeping in watches and GPS.
• Controlling frequencies in measurement and medical
equipment

130