pandas 笔记

# Pandas中的数据对象 ## series对象 Series是pandas中最基本的数据对象，它定义了Numpy的ndarray对象的接口__array__(),因此可以用numpy的数组处理函数直接对series对象进行处理，**series对象除了支持使用位置作为下标存取元素之外，还可以使用索引标签作为下标存取元素。每个series对象实际都是由两个数组组成：** - index：它是从ndarray数组继承的index索引对象，保存标签信息，若创建series对象时不指定index，将自动创建一个表示位置下标的索引 - values：保存元素值的ndarray数组，numpy的函数都对此数组进行处理

import pandas as pd
s=pd.Series([1,2,3,4],index=["a",'b','c','d'])

s.index

Index([‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’], dtype=’object’)

s.values

array([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype=int64)

s[1]

2

s['a']

1

s[[1,2,3]]

b 2 c 3 d 4 dtype: int64 **Series对象同时还具有数组和字典的功能，因此它也支持字典的一些方法**

list(s.iteritems())

[(‘a’, 1), (‘b’, 2), (‘c’, 3), (‘d’, 4)] 当两个series对象进行操作符运算时，pandas会按照标签对齐元素，也就是说运算操作符会对标签相同的两个元素进行计算

b=pd.Series([1,3,5,7],index=["a",'b','c','d'])
b-s

a 0 b 1 c 2 d 3 dtype: int64 ## Dataframe对象 ### Dataframe的各个组成元素 

s=pd.read_csv('data.txt',parse_dates=[0],header=None)

s.dtypes

0 datetime64[ns] 1 float64 dtype: object

s.shape

(14, 2)

s.columns

Int64Index([0, 1], dtype=’int64’)

s[0]

0 2016-01-01 1 2015-01-01 2 2014-01-01 3 2013-01-01 4 2012-01-01 5 2011-01-01 6 2009-01-01 7 2008-01-01 8 2007-01-01 9 2006-01-01 10 2005-01-01 11 2004-01-01 12 2003-01-01 13 2002-01-01 Name: 0, dtype: datetime64[ns]

s.loc[1:3]

[]运算符可以通过列索引标签或者列序号获取指定的列，loc[]可以通过行索引标签或者行号获取指定的行

### 将内存中的数据转换为Dataframe对象 调用Datafrmae()可以将多种格式的数据转换为Dataframe对象，它的三个参数data,index和column分别为数据，行索引，列索引。data参数可以是 - 二维数组或者能转换为二维数组的嵌套列表 - 字典：字典中的每对“键-值”将成为Dataframe对象的列。值可以是一维数组，列表或者series对象

import numpy as np
pd.DataFrame(np.random.randint(1,10,(4,2)),index=['a','b','c','d'],columns=['键','value'])

此外还可以调用from_开头的类方法，将特定格式的数据转换为dataframe对象。from_dict()将字典转换为dataframe对象，其中orient参数可以指定字典键对应的方向。
- 默认值是“columns”，表示将字典的键转换为列索引，即字典中的每个值与每一列相对应
- 当参数为‘index’时，字典中的每个值与一行对应
- 当字典为嵌套字典时，另外一个轴的索引值由第二个字典中的键所决定

dict1={'a':[1,2,3],'b':[4,5,6]}
dict2={'a':{'l':1,'o':2,'v':3},'b':{'y':4,'o':5,'u':4}}

pd.DataFrame.from_dict(dict1,orient='index')

pd.DataFrame.from_dict(dict1,orient='columns')

pd.DataFrame.from_dict(dict2,orient='index')

pd.DataFrame.from_dict(dict2,orient='columns')

from_items()将‘键值’序列转换为dataframe对象，之中‘键’表示一维数据的列表，数组或者series对象，orient参数与from_dict一致

items=dict1.items()
pd.DataFrame.from_items(items,orient='columns')

pd.DataFrame.from_items(items,orient="index",columns=['1','2','3'])#当Orient参数为index时，必须指定columns列索引

### 将Dataframe转换为其他格式的数据 to_dict()方法将dataframe对象转换为字典，它的orient参数决定了字典元素的类型

df=pd.DataFrame.from_dict(dict2,orient='index')
df.to_dict(orient='records')#将每一行转换为一个字典，形成一个字典列表

[{‘l’: 1.0, ‘o’: 2.0, ‘v’: 3.0, ‘y’: nan, ‘u’: nan}, {‘l’: nan, ‘o’: 5.0, ‘v’: nan, ‘y’: 4.0, ‘u’: 4.0}]

df.to_dict(orient='list')#列表字典，将一列转换为字典，用列索引来对应键值

{‘l’: [1.0, nan], ‘o’: [2, 5], ‘v’: [3.0, nan], ‘y’: [nan, 4.0], ‘u’: [nan, 4.0]}

df.to_dict(orient='dict')#嵌套字典，外部字典键值用列索引，内部字典键值用行索引

{‘l’: {‘a’: 1.0, ‘b’: nan}, ‘o’: {‘a’: 2, ‘b’: 5}, ‘v’: {‘a’: 3.0, ‘b’: nan}, ‘y’: {‘a’: nan, ‘b’: 4.0}, ‘u’: {‘a’: nan, ‘b’: 4.0}} to_records()参数可以将dataframe对象转换为结构数组，若index参数为TRUE，则返回数组中包含行索引的数据：

df.to_records()

rec.array([(‘a’, 1., 2, 3., nan, nan), (‘b’, nan, 5, nan, 4., 4.)], dtype=[(‘index’, ‘O’), (‘l’, ‘

df.to_records(index=False)

rec.array([( 1., 2, 3., nan, nan), (nan, 5, nan, 4., 4.)], dtype=[(‘l’, ‘ ## index对象 index对象保存索引标签数据，他可以快速的找到标签对应的整数下标，这种将标签映射到整数下标的功能与python的字段类似，其values属性可以获得保存标签的数组，与series一样，字符串使用object类型的数组保存。

index=df.columns
index.values

array([‘l’, ‘o’, ‘v’, ‘y’, ‘u’], dtype=object) **index对象可以当做是一维数组，通过与numpy数组相同的下标操作可以获得一个新的index对象，但是index对象是只读的，因此一旦创建将无法修改**

index[index>'o']

Index([‘v’, ‘y’, ‘u’], dtype=’object’)

index[[1,3]]

Index([‘o’, ‘y’], dtype=’object’)

index[1::2]

Index([‘o’, ‘y’], dtype=’object’) **index对象也具有字典映射功能，她将数组的值映射到在其他的位置** - index.get_loc(value)：获取单个值value的下标 - index_get_indexer(values)：获取一组值values的下标，当值不存在时，得到-1

index.get_loc('v')

2

index.get_indexer(['v','o'])

array([2, 1], dtype=int64) ## Mulitindex对象 Multiindex表示多级索引，它从index继承，其中的多级标签采用元组对象来表示。在Muliindex内部并不直接保存元组对象，而是使用多个index对象保存索引中每级的标签

mindex=pd.Index([('a','x'),('a','y'),('b','x'),('b','y')])

mindex.levels[0]

Index([‘a’, ‘b’], dtype=’object’)

mindex.levshape

(2, 2) 当一个元组列表传递给Index（）时，将自动创建multiindex对象，希望创建元素类型为元组的index对象时，可以设置tupleize_cols参数为false。**此外还可以使用以from_开头的方法从特定的数据结构创建multindex对象**

class1=['a','b','c','d']
class2=['1','2','3','4']
pd.MultiIndex.from_arrays([class1,class2])

MultiIndex(levels=[[‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’], [‘1’, ‘2’, ‘3’, ‘4’]], labels=[[0, 1, 2, 3], [0, 1, 2, 3]]) ## 常用的函数参数  # 下标存取  ## []参数 通过[]操作符对dataframe对象进行存取时，支持一下五种下标对象： - 单个索引标签，获取标签对应的列，返回一个series对象 - 多个索引标签，获取以列表、数组表示的多个标签对应的列，返回一个dataframe对象 - 整数切片：以整数下标获取切片对应的行 - 标签切片：当使用标签作为切片时包含终值 - 布尔数组，获取数组中为TRUE对应的行 - 布尔dataframe：将dataframe对象中false对应的元素设置为NaN

df=pd.DataFrame(np.random.randint(0,10,(4,3)),index=['a','b','c','d'],columns=['1','2','3'])

df[2:4]#取行

df['1']

a 2 b 8 c 5 d 8 Name: 1, dtype: int32

df[['1','2']]

df[df['1']>2]#b布尔数组

df[df>2]#会将不符合条件的数直接设置为NaN值

## .loc[]和.iloc[]存取器 .loc[]的下标对象是一个元组，其中的两个元素分别于dataframe的两个轴相对应。若下标不是元组，则改下标对应0轴，：对应1轴。每个周的下标对象都支持单个标签，标签列表、标签切片以及布尔数组

df.loc['a']

1 2 2 2 3 0 Name: a, dtype: int32

df.loc['a','1']

2 .iloc[]和loc[]类似，不过它使用整数下标

df.iloc[0]#取行

1 2 2 2 3 0 Name: a, dtype: int32

df.iloc[[1,3]]

df.iloc[[1,3],2]

b 6 d 0 Name: 3, dtype: int32

df.iloc[:,1]

a 2 b 0 c 8 d 0 Name: 2, dtype: int32 此外.ix[]可以混用标签和位置下标

df.ix[1:3,'1']

C:\Users\Administrator\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\ipykernel_launcher.py:1: DeprecationWarning: .ix is deprecated. Please use .loc for label based indexing or .iloc for positional indexing See the documentation here: http://pandas.pydata.org/pandas-docs/stable/indexing.html#ix-indexer-is-deprecated “”“Entry point for launching an IPython kernel. b 8 c 5 Name: 1, dtype: int32 ## 获取单个值 .at[]和.iat[]分别使用标签和整数下标获取单个值，次额外get_value()和.ax[]类似，不过执行的速度要快些

df.at['a','1']

2

df.iat[1,2]

6 ## 多级标签的存取 .loc[]和.at[]的下标可以指定多级索引中每级索引上的标签。这时候多级索引轴对应的下标是一个下标元组，该元组的每个元素与索引中的每级索引对应。若下标不是元组，则将其转换为长度为1的元组。若元组的长度比索引的层数少，则在其后补slice（None）

df.loc[['a','b'],['1','3']]

## query()方法 当需要根据一定的条件对行进行过滤时，通常可以先创建一个布尔数组，使用该数组获取TRUE所对应的行

df.query("'1'>2")

————————————————————————— TypeError Traceback (most recent call last) in () —-> 1 df.query(“‘1’>2”) ~\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\pandas\core\frame.py in query(self, expr, inplace, **kwargs) 2114 kwargs[‘level’] = kwargs.pop(‘level’, 0) + 1 2115 kwargs[‘target’] = None -> 2116 res = self.eval(expr, **kwargs) 2117 2118 try: ~\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\pandas\core\frame.py in eval(self, expr, inplace, **kwargs) 2184 kwargs[‘target’] = self 2185 kwargs[‘resolvers’] = kwargs.get(‘resolvers’, ()) + tuple(resolvers) -> 2186 return _eval(expr, inplace=inplace, **kwargs) 2187 2188 def select_dtypes(self, include=None, exclude=None): ~\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\pandas\core\computation\eval.py in eval(expr, parser, engine, truediv, local_dict, global_dict, resolvers, level, target, inplace) 265 eng = _engines[engine] 266 eng_inst = eng(parsed_expr) –> 267 ret = eng_inst.evaluate() 268 269 if parsed_expr.assigner is None and multi_line: ~\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\pandas\core\computation\engines.py in evaluate(self) 70 “”” 71 if not self._is_aligned: —> 72 self.result_type, self.aligned_axes = _align(self.expr.terms) 73 74 # make sure no names in resolvers and locals/globals clash ~\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\pandas\core\computation\align.py in _align(terms) 133 # if all resolved variables are numeric scalars 134 if all(term.isscalar for term in terms): –> 135 return _result_type_many(*(term.value for term in terms)).type, None 136 137 # perform the main alignment ~\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\pandas\core\computation\common.py in _result_type_many(*arrays_and_dtypes) 15 argument limit “”” 16 try: —> 17 return np.result_type(*arrays_and_dtypes) 18 except ValueError: 19 # we have > NPY_MAXARGS terms in our expression TypeError: data type “” not understood # 文件的输入输出  ## CSV文件 resd_csv()从文本文件中读取数据，它的可选参数非常的多，下面介绍一些常用参数： - sep参数，指定数据的分隔符号，可以使用正则表达式，默认值为逗号，有时候很CSV文件为了便于阅读，在侯浩之后添加了一些空格以对齐每列的数据。如果希望忽略这些空格，可以将skipinitialspace参数设置为TRUE - 如果数据使用空格或者制表符分割，可以不设置sep参数，而将delim_whitespace参数设置为TRUE - 默认情况下第一行文本被作为列索引标签，如果数据文件中没有保存列名的行，可以设置header参数为0 - 如果数据文件之前包含一些说明行，可以使用skiprows参数指定数据开始的行号。 - na_values,true_values和false_values等参数指定NaN、True和False对应的字符串列表 - 如果希望从字符串中读取数据，可以使用io.BytesIO(string)将字符串包装成输入流 - **如果希望将字符创转换为时间，可以使用parse_dates指定转换为时间的列** - **如果数据文件包含中文，可以使用encoding参数指定文件的编码** - **可以使用usecols参数指定需要读入的列** - 当文件很大时，可以使用chunksize参数指定一次读入的行数，当使用chunksize时，read_csv()返回一个迭代器 - 当文件名包含中文时，需要使用Unicode字符串指定文件名

import pandas as pd
df=pd.read_csv('data.txt',encoding='utf-8',parse_dates=[0],na_values=['-',' '],header=0)

df.columns=['time','ratio']

df

## 读写数据库 用to_sql()可以将数据写入sql数据库，它的第一个参数为数据库的表名，第二个参数为表述与数据库连接的Engine对象，engine在sqlalchemy库中定义 **pandas通过pymysql直接读取mysql库中的表，并写出到excel（会覆盖原有的excel！）： 查询中含有中文时需加入use_unicode=True, charset=”utf8”。** **sqlalchemy链接mysql有多个办法** - 选择 1 **engine = create_engine(‘mysql+pymysql://用户名:密码@127.0.0.1:端口号3306/数据库名?charset=utf8’)** - 选择2 **engine = create_engine(‘mysql+mysqldb://用户名:密码@127.0.0.1:端口号3306/数据库名?charset=utf8’)** **df.to_sql(目标表名,con=engine, schema=数据库名, index=False, index_label=False, if_exists=’append’, chunksize=1000)**

import tushare as ts  
import pandas as pd  
from sqlalchemy import create_engine  
df = ts.get_hist_data('000875')#读取数据，格式为DataFrame  
engine = create_engine('mysql://root:luozong@localhost/luozong?charset=utf8')#用sqlalchemy创建引擎  
df.to_sql('tick_data',engine,if_exists='append')#存入数据库，这句有时候运行一次报错，运行第二次就不报错了，不知道为什么  
df1 = pd.read_sql('tick_data',engine)#从数据库中读取表存为DataFrame  

C:\Users\Administrator\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\sqlalchemy\engine\default.py:470: Warning: (1366, “Incorrect string value: ‘\\xD6\\xD0\\xB9\\xFA\\xB1\\xEA…’ for column ‘VARIABLE_VALUE’ at row 497”) cursor.execute(statement, parameters) C:\Users\Administrator\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\sqlalchemy\dialects\mysql\base.py:1569: Warning: (1287, “’@@tx_isolation’ is deprecated and will be removed in a future release. Please use ‘@@transaction_isolation’ instead”) cursor.execute(‘SELECT @@tx_isolation’) **使用pymsql来连接mysql数据库并读取数据**

import pandas as pd  
import pymysql  

a=pymysql.connect(host='localhost',port=3306,user='root',passwd='luozong',db='world',use_unicode=True, charset="utf8")  

sql='select %s from %s where CountryCode=%s '%('*','city','"CHN"')  

d=pd.read_sql(sql,con=a)  

a.close()  

with pd.ExcelWriter(r'C:\Users\Administrator\Desktop\1.xls') as writer:  
    d.to_excel(writer)  

import matplotlib.pyplot as pl
df1=df1[600:]

y1=df1['high']

y2=df1['close']
y3=df1['low']
pl.figure(figsize=(16,9))
pl.plot(df1['date'],y1,label='high price')
pl.plot(df1['date'],y2,label='close price',color='red')
pl.plot(df1['date'],y3,label='low price')
pl.legend()
pl.show()

# 数值运算函数 series和dataframe对象都支持numpy的数据接口，因此可以直接使用numpy提供的ufunc函数对它进行计算，此外他们还提供各种运算方法，例如max(),min(),mean(),std()等，这些函数都有如下三个常用参数： - axis:计算对应的轴 - level：指定运算对应的索引级别 - skipna:是否跳过NaN值 除了支持加减乘除等运算符之外，pandas还提供了add(),sub(),mul(),div(),mod()等与二元运算符相对应的函数。这些函数可以通过axis,level和fill_value等参数控制其行为。fill_value参数表示是对于不存在的值或者NaN值使用fill_value设置的默认值

df2=df1[:50]
df2.mean()

open 9.76140 high 10.02300 close 9.79260 low 9.55260 volume 871823.83340 price_change 0.01260 p_change 0.18680 ma5 9.75968 ma10 9.73068 ma20 9.65476 v_ma5 871689.65920 v_ma10 885206.66500 v_ma20 908107.45520 dtype: float64

df2.max()

date 2015-12-17 open 10.71 high 10.95 close 10.71 low 10.28 volume 2.06881e+06 price_change 0.96 p_change 9.99 ma5 10.398 ma10 10.156 ma20 9.936 v_ma5 1.62152e+06 v_ma10 1.34618e+06 v_ma20 1.06599e+06 dtype: object pandas还提供了rolling_*()函数来对序列中相邻的N个元素进行移动窗口运算

import sys
import numpy as np
t=np.linspace(0,10,40)
x=np.sin(1*np.pi*t)
x[np.random.randint(0,len(t),40)]+= np.random.normal(0,0.3,40)
s=pd.Series(x,index=t)
s_mean=pd.rolling_mean(s,5,center=True)
s_median=pd.rolling_median(s,5,center=True)
pl.plot(t,x,t,s_mean,t,s_median)

C:\Users\Administrator\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\ipykernel_launcher.py:7: FutureWarning: pd.rolling_mean is deprecated for Series and will be removed in a future version, replace with 
    Series.rolling(window=5,center=True).mean()
  import sys
C:\Users\Administrator\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\ipykernel_launcher.py:8: FutureWarning: pd.rolling_median is deprecated for Series and will be removed in a future version, replace with 
    Series.rolling(window=5,center=True).median()






[<matplotlib.lines.Line2D at 0x2d212b26828>,
 <matplotlib.lines.Line2D at 0x2d212b26cc0>,
 <matplotlib.lines.Line2D at 0x2d212b26e10>]

expanding_*()函数对序列进行扩展窗口运算，例如expanding_max()返回每个元素为止的历史最大值

x=np.cumsum(np.random.randn(400))
x_max=pd.expanding_max(x)
x_min=pd.expanding_min(x)
x_mean=pd.expanding_mean(x)
pl.plot(x)
pl.plot(x_min)
pl.plot(x_max)
pl.plot(x_mean)
pl.show()

C:\Users\Administrator\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\ipykernel_launcher.py:2: FutureWarning: pd.expanding_max is deprecated for ndarrays and will be removed in a future version

C:\Users\Administrator\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\ipykernel_launcher.py:3: FutureWarning: pd.expanding_min is deprecated for ndarrays and will be removed in a future version
  This is separate from the ipykernel package so we can avoid doing imports until
C:\Users\Administrator\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\ipykernel_launcher.py:4: FutureWarning: pd.expanding_mean is deprecated for ndarrays and will be removed in a future version
  after removing the cwd from sys.path.

x

array([210], dtype=int32) # 字符串处理 series对象还提供了大量的字符串处理函数，由于数量众多，因此pandas使用了一个类似名称空间的对象str来包装这些字符串相关的方法

df_abc=df2.columns
df_abc.str.upper()

Index([‘DATE’, ‘OPEN’, ‘HIGH’, ‘CLOSE’, ‘LOW’, ‘VOLUME’, ‘PRICE_CHANGE’, ‘P_CHANGE’, ‘MA5’, ‘MA10’, ‘MA20’, ‘V_MA5’, ‘V_MA10’, ‘V_MA20’], dtype=’object’) python中包含两种字符串：字节字符串和Unicode字符串。通过str.decode()可以将字节字符串按照指定的编码解码为Unicode字符串。

s_utf8=pd.Series(['北京','北京市','北京地区'])
s_unicode=s_utf8.str.decode('utf-8')
s_gb2312=s_utf8.str.encode('gb2312')

s_utf8.str.len()

0 2 1 3 2 4 dtype: int64 字符串序列跟字符串一样，支持加法和乘法运算

s_abc=pd.Series(['a','b','c'])
s_utf8+'-'+s_abc*2

0 北京-aa 1 北京市-bb 2 北京地区-cc dtype: object     # 时间序列 pandas提供了表示时间点、时间段和时间间隔等三种与时间有关的函数，以及元素为这些类型的索引对象，并提供了许多时间序列相关的函数 ## 时间点、时间段和时间间隔 Timestamp对象从Python标准库中的datetime类继承，表示时间轴上的一个时刻。它提供了方便的时区转换功能 ### 时间点

now=pd.Timestamp.now()
now_shanghai=now.tz_localize('Asia/Shanghai')

now_shanghai

Timestamp(‘2018-06-08 08:36:33.781159+0800’, tz=’Asia/Shanghai’)

now_shanghai.tz_convert('Asia/Tokyo')

Timestamp(‘2018-06-08 09:36:33.781159+0900’, tz=’Asia/Tokyo’) **通过模块pytz可的common_timezones()可以获得常用的表示时区的字符串**

import pytz
pytz.common_timezones

[‘Africa/Abidjan’, ‘Africa/Accra’, ‘Africa/Addis_Ababa’, ‘Africa/Algiers’, ‘Africa/Asmara’, ‘Africa/Bamako’, ‘Africa/Bangui’, ‘Africa/Banjul’, ‘Africa/Bissau’, ‘Africa/Blantyre’, ‘Africa/Brazzaville’, ‘Africa/Bujumbura’, ‘Africa/Cairo’, ‘Africa/Casablanca’, ‘Africa/Ceuta’, ‘Africa/Conakry’, ‘Africa/Dakar’, ‘Africa/Dar_es_Salaam’, ‘Africa/Djibouti’, ‘Africa/Douala’, ‘Africa/El_Aaiun’, ‘Africa/Freetown’, ‘Africa/Gaborone’, ‘Africa/Harare’, ‘Africa/Johannesburg’, ‘Africa/Juba’, ‘Africa/Kampala’, ‘Africa/Khartoum’, ‘Africa/Kigali’, ‘Africa/Kinshasa’, ‘Africa/Lagos’, ‘Africa/Libreville’, ‘Africa/Lome’, ‘Africa/Luanda’, ‘Africa/Lubumbashi’, ‘Africa/Lusaka’, ‘Africa/Malabo’, ‘Africa/Maputo’, ‘Africa/Maseru’, ‘Africa/Mbabane’, ‘Africa/Mogadishu’, ‘Africa/Monrovia’, ‘Africa/Nairobi’, ‘Africa/Ndjamena’, ‘Africa/Niamey’, ‘Africa/Nouakchott’, ‘Africa/Ouagadougou’, ‘Africa/Porto-Novo’, ‘Africa/Sao_Tome’, ‘Africa/Tripoli’, ‘Africa/Tunis’, ‘Africa/Windhoek’, ‘America/Adak’, ‘America/Anchorage’, ‘America/Anguilla’, ‘America/Antigua’, ‘America/Araguaina’, ‘America/Argentina/Buenos_Aires’, ‘America/Argentina/Catamarca’, ‘America/Argentina/Cordoba’, ‘America/Argentina/Jujuy’, ‘America/Argentina/La_Rioja’, ‘America/Argentina/Mendoza’, ‘America/Argentina/Rio_Gallegos’, ‘America/Argentina/Salta’, ‘America/Argentina/San_Juan’, ‘America/Argentina/San_Luis’, ‘America/Argentina/Tucuman’, ‘America/Argentina/Ushuaia’, ‘America/Aruba’, ‘America/Asuncion’, ‘America/Atikokan’, ‘America/Bahia’, ‘America/Bahia_Banderas’, ‘America/Barbados’, ‘America/Belem’, ‘America/Belize’, ‘America/Blanc-Sablon’, ‘America/Boa_Vista’, ‘America/Bogota’, ‘America/Boise’, ‘America/Cambridge_Bay’, ‘America/Campo_Grande’, ‘America/Cancun’, ‘America/Caracas’, ‘America/Cayenne’, ‘America/Cayman’, ‘America/Chicago’, ‘America/Chihuahua’, ‘America/Costa_Rica’, ‘America/Creston’, ‘America/Cuiaba’, ‘America/Curacao’, ‘America/Danmarkshavn’, ‘America/Dawson’, ‘America/Dawson_Creek’, ‘America/Denver’, ‘America/Detroit’, ‘America/Dominica’, ‘America/Edmonton’, ‘America/Eirunepe’, ‘America/El_Salvador’, ‘America/Fort_Nelson’, ‘America/Fortaleza’, ‘America/Glace_Bay’, ‘America/Godthab’, ‘America/Goose_Bay’, ‘America/Grand_Turk’, ‘America/Grenada’, ‘America/Guadeloupe’, ‘America/Guatemala’, ‘America/Guayaquil’, ‘America/Guyana’, ‘America/Halifax’, ‘America/Havana’, ‘America/Hermosillo’, ‘America/Indiana/Indianapolis’, ‘America/Indiana/Knox’, ‘America/Indiana/Marengo’, ‘America/Indiana/Petersburg’, ‘America/Indiana/Tell_City’, ‘America/Indiana/Vevay’, ‘America/Indiana/Vincennes’, ‘America/Indiana/Winamac’, ‘America/Inuvik’, ‘America/Iqaluit’, ‘America/Jamaica’, ‘America/Juneau’, ‘America/Kentucky/Louisville’, ‘America/Kentucky/Monticello’, ‘America/Kralendijk’, ‘America/La_Paz’, ‘America/Lima’, ‘America/Los_Angeles’, ‘America/Lower_Princes’, ‘America/Maceio’, ‘America/Managua’, ‘America/Manaus’, ‘America/Marigot’, ‘America/Martinique’, ‘America/Matamoros’, ‘America/Mazatlan’, ‘America/Menominee’, ‘America/Merida’, ‘America/Metlakatla’, ‘America/Mexico_City’, ‘America/Miquelon’, ‘America/Moncton’, ‘America/Monterrey’, ‘America/Montevideo’, ‘America/Montserrat’, ‘America/Nassau’, ‘America/New_York’, ‘America/Nipigon’, ‘America/Nome’, ‘America/Noronha’, ‘America/North_Dakota/Beulah’, ‘America/North_Dakota/Center’, ‘America/North_Dakota/New_Salem’, ‘America/Ojinaga’, ‘America/Panama’, ‘America/Pangnirtung’, ‘America/Paramaribo’, ‘America/Phoenix’, ‘America/Port-au-Prince’, ‘America/Port_of_Spain’, ‘America/Porto_Velho’, ‘America/Puerto_Rico’, ‘America/Punta_Arenas’, ‘America/Rainy_River’, ‘America/Rankin_Inlet’, ‘America/Recife’, ‘America/Regina’, ‘America/Resolute’, ‘America/Rio_Branco’, ‘America/Santarem’, ‘America/Santiago’, ‘America/Santo_Domingo’, ‘America/Sao_Paulo’, ‘America/Scoresbysund’, ‘America/Sitka’, ‘America/St_Barthelemy’, ‘America/St_Johns’, ‘America/St_Kitts’, ‘America/St_Lucia’, ‘America/St_Thomas’, ‘America/St_Vincent’, ‘America/Swift_Current’, ‘America/Tegucigalpa’, ‘America/Thule’, ‘America/Thunder_Bay’, ‘America/Tijuana’, ‘America/Toronto’, ‘America/Tortola’, ‘America/Vancouver’, ‘America/Whitehorse’, ‘America/Winnipeg’, ‘America/Yakutat’, ‘America/Yellowknife’, ‘Antarctica/Casey’, ‘Antarctica/Davis’, ‘Antarctica/DumontDUrville’, ‘Antarctica/Macquarie’, ‘Antarctica/Mawson’, ‘Antarctica/McMurdo’, ‘Antarctica/Palmer’, ‘Antarctica/Rothera’, ‘Antarctica/Syowa’, ‘Antarctica/Troll’, ‘Antarctica/Vostok’, ‘Arctic/Longyearbyen’, ‘Asia/Aden’, ‘Asia/Almaty’, ‘Asia/Amman’, ‘Asia/Anadyr’, ‘Asia/Aqtau’, ‘Asia/Aqtobe’, ‘Asia/Ashgabat’, ‘Asia/Atyrau’, ‘Asia/Baghdad’, ‘Asia/Bahrain’, ‘Asia/Baku’, ‘Asia/Bangkok’, ‘Asia/Barnaul’, ‘Asia/Beirut’, ‘Asia/Bishkek’, ‘Asia/Brunei’, ‘Asia/Chita’, ‘Asia/Choibalsan’, ‘Asia/Colombo’, ‘Asia/Damascus’, ‘Asia/Dhaka’, ‘Asia/Dili’, ‘Asia/Dubai’, ‘Asia/Dushanbe’, ‘Asia/Famagusta’, ‘Asia/Gaza’, ‘Asia/Hebron’, ‘Asia/Ho_Chi_Minh’, ‘Asia/Hong_Kong’, ‘Asia/Hovd’, ‘Asia/Irkutsk’, ‘Asia/Jakarta’, ‘Asia/Jayapura’, ‘Asia/Jerusalem’, ‘Asia/Kabul’, ‘Asia/Kamchatka’, ‘Asia/Karachi’, ‘Asia/Kathmandu’, ‘Asia/Khandyga’, ‘Asia/Kolkata’, ‘Asia/Krasnoyarsk’, ‘Asia/Kuala_Lumpur’, ‘Asia/Kuching’, ‘Asia/Kuwait’, ‘Asia/Macau’, ‘Asia/Magadan’, ‘Asia/Makassar’, ‘Asia/Manila’, ‘Asia/Muscat’, ‘Asia/Nicosia’, ‘Asia/Novokuznetsk’, ‘Asia/Novosibirsk’, ‘Asia/Omsk’, ‘Asia/Oral’, ‘Asia/Phnom_Penh’, ‘Asia/Pontianak’, ‘Asia/Pyongyang’, ‘Asia/Qatar’, ‘Asia/Qyzylorda’, ‘Asia/Riyadh’, ‘Asia/Sakhalin’, ‘Asia/Samarkand’, ‘Asia/Seoul’, ‘Asia/Shanghai’, ‘Asia/Singapore’, ‘Asia/Srednekolymsk’, ‘Asia/Taipei’, ‘Asia/Tashkent’, ‘Asia/Tbilisi’, ‘Asia/Tehran’, ‘Asia/Thimphu’, ‘Asia/Tokyo’, ‘Asia/Tomsk’, ‘Asia/Ulaanbaatar’, ‘Asia/Urumqi’, ‘Asia/Ust-Nera’, ‘Asia/Vientiane’, ‘Asia/Vladivostok’, ‘Asia/Yakutsk’, ‘Asia/Yangon’, ‘Asia/Yekaterinburg’, ‘Asia/Yerevan’, ‘Atlantic/Azores’, ‘Atlantic/Bermuda’, ‘Atlantic/Canary’, ‘Atlantic/Cape_Verde’, ‘Atlantic/Faroe’, ‘Atlantic/Madeira’, ‘Atlantic/Reykjavik’, ‘Atlantic/South_Georgia’, ‘Atlantic/St_Helena’, ‘Atlantic/Stanley’, ‘Australia/Adelaide’, ‘Australia/Brisbane’, ‘Australia/Broken_Hill’, ‘Australia/Currie’, ‘Australia/Darwin’, ‘Australia/Eucla’, ‘Australia/Hobart’, ‘Australia/Lindeman’, ‘Australia/Lord_Howe’, ‘Australia/Melbourne’, ‘Australia/Perth’, ‘Australia/Sydney’, ‘Canada/Atlantic’, ‘Canada/Central’, ‘Canada/Eastern’, ‘Canada/Mountain’, ‘Canada/Newfoundland’, ‘Canada/Pacific’, ‘Europe/Amsterdam’, ‘Europe/Andorra’, ‘Europe/Astrakhan’, ‘Europe/Athens’, ‘Europe/Belgrade’, ‘Europe/Berlin’, ‘Europe/Bratislava’, ‘Europe/Brussels’, ‘Europe/Bucharest’, ‘Europe/Budapest’, ‘Europe/Busingen’, ‘Europe/Chisinau’, ‘Europe/Copenhagen’, ‘Europe/Dublin’, ‘Europe/Gibraltar’, ‘Europe/Guernsey’, ‘Europe/Helsinki’, ‘Europe/Isle_of_Man’, ‘Europe/Istanbul’, ‘Europe/Jersey’, ‘Europe/Kaliningrad’, ‘Europe/Kiev’, ‘Europe/Kirov’, ‘Europe/Lisbon’, ‘Europe/Ljubljana’, ‘Europe/London’, ‘Europe/Luxembourg’, ‘Europe/Madrid’, ‘Europe/Malta’, ‘Europe/Mariehamn’, ‘Europe/Minsk’, ‘Europe/Monaco’, ‘Europe/Moscow’, ‘Europe/Oslo’, ‘Europe/Paris’, ‘Europe/Podgorica’, ‘Europe/Prague’, ‘Europe/Riga’, ‘Europe/Rome’, ‘Europe/Samara’, ‘Europe/San_Marino’, ‘Europe/Sarajevo’, ‘Europe/Saratov’, ‘Europe/Simferopol’, ‘Europe/Skopje’, ‘Europe/Sofia’, ‘Europe/Stockholm’, ‘Europe/Tallinn’, ‘Europe/Tirane’, ‘Europe/Ulyanovsk’, ‘Europe/Uzhgorod’, ‘Europe/Vaduz’, ‘Europe/Vatican’, ‘Europe/Vienna’, ‘Europe/Vilnius’, ‘Europe/Volgograd’, ‘Europe/Warsaw’, ‘Europe/Zagreb’, ‘Europe/Zaporozhye’, ‘Europe/Zurich’, ‘GMT’, ‘Indian/Antananarivo’, ‘Indian/Chagos’, ‘Indian/Christmas’, ‘Indian/Cocos’, ‘Indian/Comoro’, ‘Indian/Kerguelen’, ‘Indian/Mahe’, ‘Indian/Maldives’, ‘Indian/Mauritius’, ‘Indian/Mayotte’, ‘Indian/Reunion’, ‘Pacific/Apia’, ‘Pacific/Auckland’, ‘Pacific/Bougainville’, ‘Pacific/Chatham’, ‘Pacific/Chuuk’, ‘Pacific/Easter’, ‘Pacific/Efate’, ‘Pacific/Enderbury’, ‘Pacific/Fakaofo’, ‘Pacific/Fiji’, ‘Pacific/Funafuti’, ‘Pacific/Galapagos’, ‘Pacific/Gambier’, ‘Pacific/Guadalcanal’, ‘Pacific/Guam’, ‘Pacific/Honolulu’, ‘Pacific/Kiritimati’, ‘Pacific/Kosrae’, ‘Pacific/Kwajalein’, ‘Pacific/Majuro’, ‘Pacific/Marquesas’, ‘Pacific/Midway’, ‘Pacific/Nauru’, ‘Pacific/Niue’, ‘Pacific/Norfolk’, ‘Pacific/Noumea’, ‘Pacific/Pago_Pago’, ‘Pacific/Palau’, ‘Pacific/Pitcairn’, ‘Pacific/Pohnpei’, ‘Pacific/Port_Moresby’, ‘Pacific/Rarotonga’, ‘Pacific/Saipan’, ‘Pacific/Tahiti’, ‘Pacific/Tarawa’, ‘Pacific/Tongatapu’, ‘Pacific/Wake’, ‘Pacific/Wallis’, ‘US/Alaska’, ‘US/Arizona’, ‘US/Central’, ‘US/Eastern’, ‘US/Hawaii’, ‘US/Mountain’, ‘US/Pacific’, ‘UTC’] ### 时间段 Period对象表示一个标准的时间段，例如某年，某月，某日，某小时等等。时间段的长短由freq属性决定

pd.Period.now(freq='D')

Period(‘2018-06-08’, ‘D’)

pd.Period.now(freq='H')

Period(‘2018-06-08 08:00’, ‘H’) freq属性是一个描述时间段的字符串，其可选值可以通过下面的代码获得：

from pandas.tseries import frequencies
frequencies._period_code_map.keys()

dict_keys([‘A-DEC’, ‘A-JAN’, ‘A-FEB’, ‘A-MAR’, ‘A-APR’, ‘A-MAY’, ‘A-JUN’, ‘A-JUL’, ‘A-AUG’, ‘A-SEP’, ‘A-OCT’, ‘A-NOV’, ‘Q-DEC’, ‘Q-JAN’, ‘Q-FEB’, ‘Q-MAR’, ‘Q-APR’, ‘Q-MAY’, ‘Q-JUN’, ‘Q-JUL’, ‘Q-AUG’, ‘Q-SEP’, ‘Q-OCT’, ‘Q-NOV’, ‘M’, ‘W-SUN’, ‘W-MON’, ‘W-TUE’, ‘W-WED’, ‘W-THU’, ‘W-FRI’, ‘W-SAT’, ‘B’, ‘D’, ‘H’, ‘T’, ‘S’, ‘L’, ‘U’, ‘N’, ‘Q’, ‘A’, ‘W’, ‘C’]) **时间段的起点和终点可以通过start_time和end_time属性获得，它们都是表示时间点的Timestamp对象**

now_day=pd.Period.now(freq='D')
now_day.start_time

Timestamp(‘2018-06-08 00:00:00’)

now_day.end_time

Timestamp(‘2018-06-08 23:59:59.999999999’) **调用Timestamp对象的to_period方法可以吧时间点转换为包含该时间点的时间段。时间段不包含时区信息**

now_shanghai.to_period('H')

Period(‘2018-06-08 08:00’, ‘H’)

now_shanghai.to_datetime()

C:\Users\Administrator\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\IPython\core\interactiveshell.py:2963: FutureWarning: to_datetime is deprecated. Use self.to_pydatetime() exec(code_obj, self.user_global_ns, self.user_ns) datetime.datetime(2018, 6, 8, 8, 36, 33, 781159, tzinfo=

now.day

8

now.year

2018

now.month

6

now.dayofweek

4

now.dayofyear

159 ### 时间间隔 将两个时间点相减，可以得到表示时间间隔的Timedelta对象

nation_day=pd.Timestamp('2015-10-1')
td=now-nation_day

**时间点和时间间隔之间可以进行加减运算**

nation_day+td

Timestamp(‘2018-06-08 08:36:33.781159’) **Timedelta对象的days、seconds、microseconds和nanoseconds等属性分别获得它包含的天数、秒数、微秒数和纳秒数**

td.days

981

td.seconds

30993

td.components

Components(days=981, hours=8, minutes=36, seconds=33, milliseconds=781, microseconds=159, nanoseconds=0)

tuple(td.components)

(981, 8, 36, 33, 781, 159, 0) ## 时间序列 random_timestamp()中的date_range()函数创建以start为起点，end为终点，周期为freq的DatetimeIndex对象

def random_timestamps(start, end, freq, count):
    index = pd.date_range(start, end, freq=freq)#根据时间段产生随机时间
    locations = np.random.choice(np.arange(len(index)), size=count, replace=False)
    locations.sort()
    return index[locations]

np.random.seed(42)
ts_index = random_timestamps("2015-01-01", "2015-10-01", freq="Min", count=5)
pd_index = ts_index.to_period("M")
td_index = pd.TimedeltaIndex(np.diff(ts_index))

print (ts_index, "\n")
print (pd_index, "\n")
print (td_index, "\n")

DatetimeIndex([‘2015-01-15 16:12:00’, ‘2015-02-15 08:04:00’, ‘2015-02-28 12:30:00’, ‘2015-08-06 02:40:00’, ‘2015-08-18 13:13:00’], dtype=’datetime64[ns]’, freq=None) PeriodIndex([‘2015-01’, ‘2015-02’, ‘2015-02’, ‘2015-08’, ‘2015-08’], dtype=’period[M]’, freq=’M’) TimedeltaIndex([‘30 days 15:52:00’, ‘13 days 04:26:00’, ‘158 days 14:10:00’, ‘12 days 10:33:00’], dtype=’timedelta64[ns]’, freq=None) 这三种索引对象都提供了许多与时间相关的属性

ts_index.weekday

Int64Index([3, 6, 5, 3, 1], dtype=’int64’)

pd_index.month

Int64Index([1, 2, 2, 8, 8], dtype=’int64’)

td_index.seconds

Int64Index([57120, 15960, 51000, 37980], dtype=’int64’) **DataIndex.shift(n,freq)可以移动时间点，将当前的时间移动n个freq时间单位。对于天，小时这样的精确单位，相当于加上指定的时间间隔**

ts_index.shift(1,freq='H')

DatetimeIndex([‘2015-01-15 17:12:00’, ‘2015-02-15 09:04:00’, ‘2015-02-28 13:30:00’, ‘2015-08-06 03:40:00’, ‘2015-08-18 14:13:00’], dtype=’datetime64[ns]’, freq=None) **对于月份这种不精确的时间单位，则移动一个单位相当于移动到月头或者月底**

ts_index.shift(1,freq='M')

DatetimeIndex([‘2015-01-31 16:12:00’, ‘2015-02-28 08:04:00’, ‘2015-03-31 12:30:00’, ‘2015-08-31 02:40:00’, ‘2015-08-31 13:13:00’], dtype=’datetime64[ns]’, freq=None) DatatimeIndex.normalize()将时刻修改为当天的凌晨零点，可以理解为按日期取整

ts_index.normalize()

DatetimeIndex([‘2015-01-15’, ‘2015-02-15’, ‘2015-02-28’, ‘2015-08-06’, ‘2015-08-18’], dtype=’datetime64[ns]’, freq=None) **如果希望对任意的时间周期取整，可以先通过to_peroid()将其转换为period_index对象，然后再调用to_timestamp()方法转换回datetimeIndex对象，to_timestamp()的how参数决定将时间段的起点还是重点转换为时间点，默认值是‘start’**

ts_index.to_period("H").to_timestamp()

DatetimeIndex([‘2015-01-15 16:00:00’, ‘2015-02-15 08:00:00’, ‘2015-02-28 12:00:00’, ‘2015-08-06 02:00:00’, ‘2015-08-18 13:00:00’], dtype=’datetime64[ns]’, freq=None) 以时间为索引的series对象，称为时间序列

ts=pd.Series(range(0,5),index=ts_index)

ts

2015-01-15 16:12:00 0 2015-02-15 08:04:00 1 2015-02-28 12:30:00 2 2015-08-06 02:40:00 3 2015-08-18 13:13:00 4 dtype: int32 **时间序列提供了一些专门用于处理时间的方法** **between_time()返回所有位于指定时间范围之内的数据**

ts.between_time('9:00','18:00')

2015-01-15 16:12:00 0 2015-02-28 12:30:00 2 2015-08-18 13:13:00 4 dtype: int32 **tshift()则将索引移动指定的时间**

ts.tshift(1,freq='M')

2015-01-31 16:12:00 0 2015-02-28 08:04:00 1 2015-03-31 12:30:00 2 2015-08-31 02:40:00 3 2015-08-31 13:13:00 4 dtype: int32 **PeriodIndex()和TimedeltaIndex为索引的序列与科研使用tshift()对索引进行移动**

pd_series=pd.Series(range(0,5),index=pd_index)
td_series=pd.Series(range(0,4),index=td_index)

pd_series.shift(1,freq='M')

2015-02 0 2015-03 1 2015-03 2 2015-09 3 2015-09 4 Freq: M, dtype: int32

td_series.shift('1',freq='H')

30 days 16:52:00 0 13 days 05:26:00 1 158 days 15:10:00 2 12 days 11:33:00 3 dtype: int32 ## 与NaN有关的函数 Pandas使用NaN表示缺失的数据，由于整数列无法使用NaN，因此如果整数类型的列出现缺失数据，则会被自动转换为浮点数类型。下面将布尔类型的dataframe对象传递给一个整数类型的Dataframe对象的where（）方法，该方法将False对象的元素设置为NaN值，

data=np.random.randint(0,10,(10,3))
df_int=pd.DataFrame(data,columns=['A',"B","C"])
dd=df_int.where(df_int>2)

** isnull()和not_null()用于判断元素值是否为NaN，它们返回全是布尔值的dataframe对象。**

dd.isnull()

dd.notnull()

count()返回每行或者每列的非NaN元素的个数

dd.count()

A 10 B 3 C 7 dtype: int64

dd.count(axis=1)

0 1 1 2 2 1 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 1 7 2 8 2 9 2 dtype: int64 **d对于包含NaN值的列，最简单的方法是调用dropna()删除包含NaN值的行或者列，当全部使用默认参数时，将默认删除包含NaN值的行。可以通过thresh参数设置NaN值的阈值。**

dd.dropna()

dd.dropna(thresh=4,axis=1)#这个方法有bug

dd

当行数据按照某种物理顺序排列时，可以使用NaN前后的数据对其进行填充。ffill()使用之前的数据进行填充，而bfill()则使用之后的数据进行填充。interpolate()使用前后数据进行插值填充。

interpolate()默认使用等距线性插值，可以同时其method参数设置插值算法,其方法主要有：

          'slinear', 'quadratic', 'cubic', 'barycentric', 'krogh',
          'polynomial', 'spline', 'piecewise_polynomial',
          'from_derivatives', 'pchip', 'akima'}```


```python
dd.ffill()




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dd.bfill()




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dd.interpolate(method='index')#使用索引值填充




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dd.interpolate(method="linear")




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此外，还可以使用字典参数fillna()对不同的列使用不同的值进行填充NaN

dd.fillna({"B":5,"C":6})




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各种聚合方法的skipna参数默认为TRUE，因此计算是将忽略NaN元素，注意每行或者每列是单独运算的。如果需要忽略包含NaN的整行，需要先调用dropna（）。

dd.sum()




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A    61.0
B    13.0
C    36.0
dtype: float64

dd.sum(skipna=False)




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A    61.0
B     NaN
C     NaN
dtype: float64

combine_first(other)方法使用other填充df中的NaN元素。它将df中的NaN元素替换为other中对应标签的元素。

other=pd.DataFrame(np.random.randint(0,5,(10,3)),columns=['A','B','C'])
dd.combine_first(other)




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改变Dataframe的形状

Dataframe的shape属性和Numpy的二维数组是一样的，是一个有两个元素的数组。因为Dataframe的index和columns都支持multiindex索引，因此可以用Dataframe表示更高维的数据

d0=df[:10]




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d0=d0[['open', 'high', 'close', 'low', 'volume']]




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d0.groupby(['open','volume']).mean()




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添加行或者列

由于Dataframe可以看做是一个series的字典，因此可以通过Dataframe[colname]=values即可添加新列。有时候新添加的列是从已存在的列上计算而来的，这时候可以使用eval()方法计算。

import numpy as np
df['new_col']=df.eval('percent/100')




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df




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assign()方法添加由关键字参数指定的列，它返回一个新的Dataframe对象，原数据的内容保持不变

df.assign(new_col2=100-df.percent)




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append()方法用于添加行，他没有inplace参数，只能返回一个全新的对象。由于每次调用append()都会复制原有数据，因此如果在循环中使用append()添加数据行会影响运行数速度，可以考虑使用一个列表缓存所有分块数据，然后使用concat()将这些数据沿着指定轴拼贴到一起。

def random_dataframe(n):
    columns = ["A", "B", "C"]
    for i in range(n):
        nrow = np.random.randint(10, 20)
        yield pd.DataFrame(np.random.randint(0, 100, size=(nrow, 3)), columns=columns)

df_list = list(random_dataframe(1000))




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%%time
df_res1 = pd.DataFrame([])
for df in df_list:
    df_res1 = df_res1.append(df)




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Wall time: 574 ms

%%time
df_res2 = pd.concat(df_list, axis=0)




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Wall time: 129 ms

drop()删除指定标签的行或者列

df.drop("A",axis=1)




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行索引与列之间的相互转换

reset_index()可以将索引转换成列，通过level参数可以指定被转换为列的级别。如果只希望从索引中删除某个级别，可以设置drop参数为TRUE

df=pd.read_csv('data.txt',header=None)




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---------------------------------------------------------------------------

TypeError                                 Traceback (most recent call last)

<ipython-input-53-e2a66a7edd4c> in <module>()
----> 1 df=pd.read_csv('data.txt',header=None,index=0)


TypeError: parser_f() got an unexpected keyword argument 'index'

df.columns=['time','percent']
df.index=df['time']




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df.reset_index(level='time',drop=True)#可以将原有的索引删除




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set_index()可将列转换为航所以，如果append参数为false，则删除当前的行索引；若为TRUE，则为当前的索引添加新的级别

df.set_index('time')




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import matplotlib.pyplot as pl
pl.plot(df['percent'])
pl.show()




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行索引与列索引的相互转换

stack()方法把指定级别的列索引转换为行索引，而unstack()则把行索引转换为列索引

交换索引等级

reorder_levels()和swaplevel()交换指定轴的索引级别

透视表

pivot()可以将dataframe中的散列数据分别作为行索引，列索引和元素值，将这三列数据转换为二维表格

pivot()的三个参数index，columns和values只支持指定一列数据，若不指定values数据，就将剩余的列都当做元素值列，得到多级索引

分组运算

所谓分组运算就是使用特定的条件将数据分为多个分组，然后对每个分组进行运算，最后再将结果整合起来。pandas中的分组运算由Dataframe或Series对象的groupby()方法实现

groupby()方法

groupby()的axis参数默认为0表示源数据的行进行分组。源数据的每行与分组数据的每个元素对应，分组数据中的每个唯一值对应每一个分组

当分组用的数据在源数据时中时，可以直接通过列名指定分组数据

import pandas as pd
import numpy as np

dose=pd.read_csv('dose.csv')
tmt_groupby=dose.groupby('Tmt')




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print(tmt_groupby)




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<pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy object at 0x000001EB6DB94EF0>

还可以使用列表传递多组分组数据给groupby()

double_dose=dose.groupby(['Tmt','Age'])




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**当分组数据不在源数据中时，可以直接传递分组数据

randvalue=np.random.randint(0,10,dose.shape[0])
random_group=dose.groupby(randvalue)




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当分组数据可以通过源数据的行索引计算时，可以将计算函数传递给groupby()

alternate_group=dose.groupby(lambda n:n%3)




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上述三种分组数据可以任意自由组合

crazy_group=dose.groupby(['Gender',lambda n:n%2,randvalue])




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Groupby对象

* 使用len()可以获得分组数*

len(tmt_groupby)




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4

Groupby对象直接迭代接口，他与字典的iteritems()方法类似，每次迭代得到的分组的键和数据，当使用多列数据分组时，与每个组对应的键是一个元组

for key ,value in tmt_groupby:
    print(key,value.shape)




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A (65, 6)
B (65, 6)
C (65, 6)
D (65, 6)

* get_group()方法可以获得与指定的分组键对应对应的数据*

tmt_groupby.get_group('C')




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对Groupby的下标操作将获得一个只包含源数据中指定列的新groupby对象，通过这种方法可以先使用源数据中的某些列进行分组，然后选择一些列进行后续计算

tmt_groupby['Dose']




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<pandas.core.groupby.SeriesGroupBy object at 0x000001EB6DEA3080>

`Groupby类中定义了_getattr()_()方法，因此当获取Groupby中未定义的属性时，将按照下面的顺序操作：
- 如果属性名是源数据对象的某列的名称，则相当于Groupby[name]，即获得针对该列的Groupby对象
- 如果属性名是源数据对象的方法时，则相当于通过apply()对每个分组调用该方法。注意Pandas中定义了转换为apply()的方法集合，只有在此集合之中的方法才能被自动转换

tmt_groupby.Dose




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<pandas.core.groupby.SeriesGroupBy object at 0x000001EB6E835BA8>

分组-运算-合并

通过Groupby()对象提供的agg()、transform()、filter()以及apply()等方法可以实现各种分组运算，每个方法的第一个参数都是一个回调函数，改函数对每个分组的数据进行运算并返回结果。这些方法根据回调函数的返回结果生成最终的分组运算结果。

agg()-聚合

agg()对每个分组的数据进行聚合运算。所谓聚合运算就是将一组由N个数值组成的数据转换为单个数值的运算，例如求和、平均值、中间值甚至是随机取值等都是聚合运算。其回调函数接受的数据是表示每个分组中每列数据的series对象，若回调函数不能处理series对象，则agg()会接着尝试将整个分组的数据作为dataframe对象传递给回调函数，回调函数对其参数记性聚合运算，将series对象转换为单个数值，或将Dataframe对象转换为series对象。agg()返回一个Dataframe对象，其行索引为每个分组的键，而列索引为源数据的列索引

tmt_groupby.agg(np.mean)




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tmt_groupby.agg(lambda df:df.loc[df.Response1.idxmax()])




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transform()-转换

transform()对每个分组中的数据进行转换运算。与agg()相同，首先尝试将每列的series对象传递给回调函数，如果失败，则将表示整个分组的Dataframe对象传递给回调函数。回调函数的返回结果与参数的形状相同，transform()将这些结果按照源数据的顺序合并在一起。

tmt_groupby.transform(lambda s:s-s.mean()).head()




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filter()-过滤

filter()对每个分组进行条件判断，她将表示每个分组的dataframe对象传递给回调参数，该函数返回TRUE或False，以决定是否保留该分组。filter()的返回结果是过滤掉一些行之后的Dataframe对象，其行索引与源数据的行索引的顺序一致。

tmt_groupby.filter(lambda df : df.Response1.max()<11).head()




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apply()——运用

apply()将表示每个分组的Dataframe对象传递给回调函数并收集其返回值，将这些返回值按照某种规则合并。apply的用法十分灵活，可以实现上述agg(),transform()和filter()方法的功能。它会根据回调函数的返回值的类型选择恰当的合并方式，然而这种自动选择有时会得到令人费解的结果

tmt_groupby.apply(pd.DataFrame.max)




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tmt_groupby.apply(pd.DataFrame.mean)




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* 当回调函数的返回值是DataFrame对象时，根据其行标签是否与参数对象的行标签为同一对象，会得到不同的结果*

group=tmt_groupby[['Response1','Response1']]




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group.apply(lambda df:df-df.mean()).head()




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group.apply(lambda df:(df-df.mean())[:]).head()




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当回调函数返回None值时，将忽略该返回值，因此可以实现filter()的功能

tmt_groupby.apply(lambda df:None if df.Response1.mean()<5 else df.sample(2))




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数据处理与数据可视化

分析pandas项目的提交历史

将数据从文件中读取出来

def read_git_log(log_fn):
    import io
    with io.open(log_fn, "r", encoding="utf8") as f:

        author = datetime = None
        message = []
        message_start = False
        for line in f:
            line = line.strip()
            if not line:
                continue

            if line.startswith("commit"):
                if author is not None:
                    yield author, datetime, u"\n".join(message)
                    del message[:]
                message_start = False
            elif line.startswith("Author:"):
                author = line[line.index(":")+1 : line.index("<")].strip()
            elif line.startswith("Date:"):
                datetime = line[line.index(":")+1 :].strip()
                message_start = True
            elif message_start:
                message.append(line)




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将生成器数据转换为Dataframe数据

df_commit=pd.DataFrame(read_git_log('pandas.log'),columns=['Author','DateString','Message'])
df_commit.shape




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(17260, 3)

转换数据

df_commit.DateString.head()




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0    Sat Jun 9 02:40:03 2018 +0300
1    Fri Jun 8 18:32:20 2018 -0500
2    Fri Jun 8 19:44:17 2018 +0200
3    Fri Jun 8 18:39:11 2018 +0100
4    Fri Jun 8 11:54:36 2018 -0500
Name: DateString, dtype: object

df_commit['Date']=pd.to_datetime(df_commit.DateString)
print(df_commit.head())




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                  Author                     DateString  \
0           Pyry Kovanen  Sat Jun 9 02:40:03 2018 +0300   
1               chris-b1  Fri Jun 8 18:32:20 2018 -0500   
2  Joris Van den Bossche  Fri Jun 8 19:44:17 2018 +0200   
3           Fábio Rosado  Fri Jun 8 18:39:11 2018 +0100   
4         Tom Augspurger  Fri Jun 8 11:54:36 2018 -0500   

                                             Message                Date  
0  BUG: Fix empty Data frames to JSON round-tripp... 2018-06-08 23:40:03  
1  BLD: include dll in package_data on Windows (#... 2018-06-08 23:32:20  
2  REGR: allow merging on object boolean columns ... 2018-06-08 17:44:17  
3  DOC: update multi-index term with MultiIndex (... 2018-06-08 17:39:11  
4  Revert change to comparison op with datetime.d... 2018-06-08 16:54:36  

df_commit['TimeZone']=df_commit.DateString.str[-5:]
import re
df_commit["Type"] = df_commit.Message.str.extract(r"^([A-Z/]{2,12})", flags=re.MULTILINE)




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C:\Users\Administrator\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\ipykernel_launcher.py:3: FutureWarning: currently extract(expand=None) means expand=False (return Index/Series/DataFrame) but in a future version of pandas this will be changed to expand=True (return DataFrame)
  This is separate from the ipykernel package so we can avoid doing imports until

df_commit.head(10)




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df_commit.set_index('Date',drop=False,inplace=True)
df_commit.sort_index(inplace=True)
df_commit.head()




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绘制提交时间分布图

timedelta=df_commit.Date.diff(1).dropna()




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hour_delta=timedelta.dt.days*24+timedelta.dt.seconds/3600.0
ax=hour_delta.plot(kind='hist',figsize=(16,9),bins=100,histtype='step',lw=4,range=(0,5))
ax.set_xlabel('Hours')




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Text(0.5,0,'Hours')

统计每个星期的提交次数

ax=df_commit.Author.resample('W',how='count').plot(kind='area',figsize=(16,9),color='red',lw=4)
ax.set_xlabel('date')




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C:\Users\Administrator\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\ipykernel_launcher.py:1: FutureWarning: how in .resample() is deprecated
the new syntax is .resample(...).count()
  """Entry point for launching an IPython kernel.





Text(0.5,0,'date')

ax=df_commit.Author.resample('M',how='count').plot(kind='area',figsize=(16,9),color='red',lw=4)
ax.set_xlabel('Month')




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C:\Users\Administrator\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\ipykernel_launcher.py:1: FutureWarning: how in .resample() is deprecated
the new syntax is .resample(...).count()
  """Entry point for launching an IPython kernel.





Text(0.5,0,'Month')

绘制月份提交图

ax=df_commit.Author.resample('M',how='count').plot(kind='area',figsize=(16,9),color='red',lw=4)
ax.set_xlabel('Month')




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C:\Users\Administrator\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\ipykernel_launcher.py:1: FutureWarning: how in .resample() is deprecated
the new syntax is .resample(...).count()
  """Entry point for launching an IPython kernel.





Text(0.5,0,'Month')

上述图通过groupby的实现

df_commit['Period']=df_commit.index.to_period('M')




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df_commit.groupby('Period').count().plot(kind='area',figsize=(16,9),color='red',lw=4)




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Text(0.5,17.2,'Month')

统计每个作者的提交次数

df_commit.groupby('Author').count()['Message']




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Author
3553x                   1
A. Flaxman              1
ARF                     1
Aaron Barber            1
Aaron Critchley         9
Aaron Schumacher        1
Aaron Staple            2
Aaron Toth              1
AbdealiJK               1
Abraham Flaxman        19
Acanthostega            1
Adam Chainz             1
Adam Gleave             1
Adam Greenhall          4
Adam Hooper             1
Adam J. Stewart         3
Adam Kim                1
Adam Klein            327
Adam Marcus             2
Adam Obeng              5
Adam Smith              1
AdamShamlian            1
Adrian                  1
Adrian Liaw             1
Adrien Emery            1
Agustín Herranz         1
Ajay Saxena             5
Akash Tandon            1
Alan Du                 1
Alan Velasco            5
                     ... 
tv3141                  1
tworec                  1
tzinckgraf              2
unknown                 3
unutbu                 18
verakai                 1
vytas                   1
waitingkuo              4
wandersoncferreira      1
watercrossing           1
wavedatalab             1
wcwagner                4
westurner               2
willayd                 1
xgdgsc                  1
xpvpc                   2
y-p                   943
yelite                  1
ysau                    1
yui-knk                 5
zach powers             3
zachcp                  1
zertrin                 1
zhanghui                1
zhangjinjie             1
znmean                  1
zzgao                   1
Åsmund Hjulstad         1
Øystein S. Haaland      1
颜发才（Yan Facai）          1
Name: Message, Length: 1379, dtype: int64

s_Author=df_commit.Author.value_counts()#另一种统计方法




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* 下面使用crosstab()统计每个月每位作者的提交次数，所得到的结果df_counts的行索引为月份，列索引为作者*

df_counts=pd.crosstab(df_commit.index.to_period('M'),df_commit.Author)
df_counts.index.name='Month'
df_counts.shape




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(107, 1379)

df_counts[s_Author.head(5).index].plot(kind='area',subplots=True,figsize=(8,6),sharex=True,sharey=True)




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array([<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x000001EB75238898>,
       <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x000001EB7556CB00>,
       <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x000001EB75596B70>,
       <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x000001EB755C1BE0>,
       <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x000001EB755EBC50>],
      dtype=object)

活动记录图

daily_commit = df_commit.index.to_period("D").value_counts() #❶
daily_commit.index = pd.MultiIndex.from_arrays([daily_commit.index.asfreq("W"),  #❷
                                                daily_commit.index.weekday])
daily_commit = daily_commit.sort_index()
active_data = daily_commit.unstack(0).iloc[:, -60:].fillna(0) #❸




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#%fig=Pandas项目的活动记录图
import matplotlib.pyplot as pl
fig, ax = pl.subplots(figsize=(15, 4))
ax.set_aspect("equal")
ax.pcolormesh(active_data.values, cmap="Greens", 
              vmin=0, vmax=active_data.values.max() * 0.75) #❹

tick_locs = np.arange(3, 60, 10)
ax.set_xticks(tick_locs + 0.5)
ax.set_xticklabels(active_data.columns[tick_locs].to_timestamp(how="start").format())
ax.set_yticks(np.arange(7) + 0.5)

from pandas.tseries.frequencies import DAYS
ax.set_yticklabels(DAYS);




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分析空气质量数据

读取数据和转换

store=pd.HDFStore('aqi.hdf5')
df_aqi=store.select('aqi')




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df_aqi.head()




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df_aqi['Date']=pd.to_datetime(df_aqi.Time)




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df_aqi.set_index(df_aqi.index.to_period('D'),drop=False,inplace=True)#必须设置inplace，index才会是datetimeIndex




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df_aqi.head()




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df_aqi.City.value_counts()




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天津     134471
北京     109999
上海      92745
天津市        13
北京市        12
上海市        10
Name: City, dtype: int64

df_aqi['City']=df_aqi.City.str.replace('市','')




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df_aqi.City.value_counts()




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天津    134484
北京    110011
上海     92755
Name: City, dtype: int64

评估aqi与其他污染气体的相关性

df_aqi.corr()




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fig,ax=pl.subplots(figsize=(16,9))
ax.set_aspect('equal')
ax.pcolormesh(df_aqi.corr(),cmap='Greens',vmin=-0.9,vmax=1)





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<matplotlib.collections.QuadMesh at 0x1eb1af6ff60>

fig,ax=pl.subplots(figsize=(16,9))
plot_dataframe_as_colormesh(df_aqi.corr(),ax=ax,colorbar=True,xtick_rot=90)




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<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x1eb1b0c44a8>

ax.pcolormesh?




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热力图函数

import pylab as pl
import numpy as np


def plot_dataframe_as_colormesh(df, ax=None, inverse_yaxis=False, colorbar=False, xtick_rot=0,
                   xtick_start=0, xtick_step=1, ytick_start=0, ytick_step=1,
                   xtick_format=None, ytick_format=None,
                   **kw):
    nrow, ncol = df.shape
    if ax is None:
        fig_width = 10.0
        fig_height = fig_width / ncol * nrow
        fig, ax = pl.subplots(figsize=(fig_width, fig_height))

    ax.set_aspect("equal")
    if inverse_yaxis:
        ax.invert_yaxis()
    mesh = ax.pcolormesh(df.values, **kw)
    if colorbar:
        pl.colorbar(ax=ax, mappable=mesh)

    xticks_loc = np.arange(xtick_start, ncol, xtick_step)
    yticks_loc = np.arange(ytick_start, nrow, ytick_step)

    xlabels = df.columns.tolist()
    if xtick_format is not None:
        xlabels = [xtick_format(label) for label in xlabels]
    ylabels = df.index.tolist()
    if ytick_format is not None:
        ylabels = [ytick_format(label) for label in ylabels]

    ax.set_xticks(xticks_loc + 0.5)
    ax.set_xticklabels([xlabels[idx] for idx in xticks_loc], rotation=xtick_rot)
    ax.set_yticks(yticks_loc + 0.5)
    ax.set_yticklabels([ylabels[idx] for idx in yticks_loc])
    return ax




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每座城市的日平均PM2.5分布图

daily_city_groupby=df_aqi.groupby(['Date','City'])




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C:\Users\Administrator\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\ipykernel_launcher.py:1: FutureWarning: 'Date' is both a column name and an index level.
Defaulting to column but this will raise an ambiguity error in a future version
  """Entry point for launching an IPython kernel.

mean_PM=daily_city_groupby.PM2_5.mean().unstack(1)
mean_PM.plot(kind='hist',histtype='step',bins=20,normed=True,lw=2)
pl.grid()
pl.rcParams['font.family']='STSong'




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C:\Users\Administrator\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\matplotlib\axes\_axes.py:6462: UserWarning: The 'normed' kwarg is deprecated, and has been replaced by the 'density' kwarg.
  warnings.warn("The 'normed' kwarg is deprecated, and has been "

mean_PM.plot(kind='kde',lw=2)
pl.xlim(0,800)




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(0, 800)

mean_PM.corr()




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fig,ax=pl.subplots(figsize=(4,3))
plot_dataframe_as_colormesh(mean_PM.corr(),ax=ax,colorbar=True,xtick_rot=90)




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<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x1eb1b6894e0>

统计一个星期中每天的PM25平均值

week_mean=df_aqi.groupby([df_aqi.Time.dt.dayofweek,'City']).PM2_5.mean()
ax=week_mean.unstack(1).plot(kind='Bar')
from pandas.tseries.frequencies import DAYS
ax.set_xticklabels(DAYS)
ax.legend(loc='best',mode='expand',bbox_to_anchor=(0,1.2,1,0.102))
ax.grid(True)




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hour_mean=df_aqi.groupby([df_aqi.Time.dt.hour,'City']).PM2_5.mean()
ax=hour_mean.unstack(1).plot(kind='Bar',figsize=(16,9))
ax.legend(loc='best',mode='expand',bbox_to_anchor=(0,1.,1,0.102),ncol=3)
ax.grid(True)





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查看北京市天气情况

bj_weather=df_aqi.query('City=="北京"')
month_place_PM=bj_weather.groupby([bj_weather.Time.dt.to_period('M'),'Position']).PM2_5.mean()




<div class="se-preview-section-delimiter"></div>

place_mean=month_place_PM.mean(level=1).sort_values()
place_mean.plot(kind='bar',color='green',figsize=(16,9
                                                 ))




<div class="se-preview-section-delimiter"></div>

<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x1eb219d69b0>

place=place_mean.iloc[[0,1,-2,-1]].index
ax=month_place_PM.unstack(1).loc[:,place].plot(kind='bar',figsize=(16,9),width=0.8)
ax.grid()

“`

行索引与列索引的相互转换

stack()方法把指定级别的列索引转换为行索引，而unstack()则把行索引转换为列索引

交换索引等级

reorder_levels()和swaplevel()交换指定轴的索引级别

透视表

pivot()可以将dataframe中的散列数据分别作为行索引，列索引和元素值，将这三列数据转换为二维表格

pivot()的三个参数index，columns和values只支持指定一列数据，若不指定values数据，就将剩余的列都当做元素值列，得到多级索引

分组运算

所谓分组运算就是使用特定的条件将数据分为多个分组，然后对每个分组进行运算，最后再将结果整合起来。pandas中的分组运算由Dataframe或Series对象的groupby()方法实现

groupby()方法

groupby()的axis参数默认为0表示源数据的行进行分组。源数据的每行与分组数据的每个元素对应，分组数据中的每个唯一值对应每一个分组

当分组用的数据在源数据时中时，可以直接通过列名指定分组数据

“`python
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np

dose=pd.read_csv(‘dose.csv’)
tmt_groupby=dose.groupby(‘Tmt’)

“`

Text(0.5,0,'Hours')

统计每个星期的提交次数

“`python
ax=df_commit.Author.resample(‘W’,how=’count’).plot(kind=’area’,figsize=(16,9),color=’red’,lw=4)
ax.set_xlabel(‘date’)

“`

C:\Users\Administrator\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\ipykernel_launcher.py:1: FutureWarning: how in .resample() is deprecated
the new syntax is .resample(...).count()
  """Entry point for launching an IPython kernel.





Text(0.5,0,'date')

“`python
ax=df_commit.Author.resample(‘M’,how=’count’).plot(kind=’area’,figsize=(16,9),color=’red’,lw=4)
ax.set_xlabel(‘Month’)

“`

C:\Users\Administrator\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\ipykernel_launcher.py:1: FutureWarning: how in .resample() is deprecated
the new syntax is .resample(...).count()
  """Entry point for launching an IPython kernel.





Text(0.5,0,'Month')

绘制月份提交图

“`python
ax=df_commit.Author.resample(‘M’,how=’count’).plot(kind=’area’,figsize=(16,9),color=’red’,lw=4)
ax.set_xlabel(‘Month’)

“`

C:\Users\Administrator\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\ipykernel_launcher.py:1: FutureWarning: how in .resample() is deprecated
the new syntax is .resample(...).count()
  """Entry point for launching an IPython kernel.





Text(0.5,0,'Month')

上述图通过groupby的实现

“`python
df_commit[‘Period’]=df_commit.index.to_period(‘M’)

“`

Text(0.5,17.2,'Month')

统计每个作者的提交次数

“`python
df_commit.groupby(‘Author’).count()[‘Message’]

“`

array([<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x000001EB75238898>,
       <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x000001EB7556CB00>,
       <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x000001EB75596B70>,
       <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x000001EB755C1BE0>,
       <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x000001EB755EBC50>],
      dtype=object)

活动记录图

“`python
daily_commit = df_commit.index.to_period(“D”).value_counts() #❶
daily_commit.index = pd.MultiIndex.from_arrays([daily_commit.index.asfreq(“W”), #❷
daily_commit.index.weekday])
daily_commit = daily_commit.sort_index()
active_data = daily_commit.unstack(0).iloc[:, -60:].fillna(0) #❸

“`

分析空气质量数据

读取数据和转换

“`python
store=pd.HDFStore(‘aqi.hdf5’)
df_aqi=store.select(‘aqi’)

“`

<matplotlib.collections.QuadMesh at 0x1eb1af6ff60>

“`python
fig,ax=pl.subplots(figsize=(16,9))
plot_dataframe_as_colormesh(df_aqi.corr(),ax=ax,colorbar=True,xtick_rot=90)

“`

<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x1eb1b0c44a8>

“`python
ax.pcolormesh?

“`

C:\Users\Administrator\Anaconda3\lib\site-packages\matplotlib\axes\_axes.py:6462: UserWarning: The 'normed' kwarg is deprecated, and has been replaced by the 'density' kwarg.
  warnings.warn("The 'normed' kwarg is deprecated, and has been "

“`python
mean_PM.plot(kind=’kde’,lw=2)
pl.xlim(0,800)

“`

(0, 800)

“`python
mean_PM.corr()

“`

<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x1eb1b6894e0>

统计一个星期中每天的PM25平均值

“`python
week_mean=df_aqi.groupby([df_aqi.Time.dt.dayofweek,’City’]).PM2_5.mean()
ax=week_mean.unstack(1).plot(kind=’Bar’)
from pandas.tseries.frequencies import DAYS
ax.set_xticklabels(DAYS)
ax.legend(loc=’best’,mode=’expand’,bbox_to_anchor=(0,1.2,1,0.102))
ax.grid(True)

“`

“`python
hour_mean=df_aqi.groupby([df_aqi.Time.dt.hour,’City’]).PM2_5.mean()
ax=hour_mean.unstack(1).plot(kind=’Bar’,figsize=(16,9))
ax.legend(loc=’best’,mode=’expand’,bbox_to_anchor=(0,1.,1,0.102),ncol=3)
ax.grid(True)

“`

查看北京市天气情况

“`python
bj_weather=df_aqi.query(‘City==”北京”’)
month_place_PM=bj_weather.groupby([bj_weather.Time.dt.to_period(‘M’),’Position’]).PM2_5.mean()

    <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x1eb219d69b0>




![](http://ww1.sinaimg.cn/large/699db930ly1fsu5dbwiyxj20pr0g2jrg.jpg)



```python
place=place_mean.iloc[[0,1,-2,-1]].index
ax=month_place_PM.unstack(1).loc[:,place].plot(kind='bar',figsize=(16,9),width=0.8)
ax.grid()