How Children Learn (New Edition)

How children learn

Educational theories and approaches – from Comenius the father of modern education to giants such as Piaget, Vygotsky and Malaguzzi

by Linda Pound

Published by Practical Pre-School Books, A Division of MA Education Ltd, St Jude’s Church, Dulwich Road, Herne Hill, London, SE24 0PB.

Tel: 020 7738 5454 www.practicalpreschoolbooks.com

Associate Publisher: Angela Morano Shaw

© MA Education Ltd 2014. Photos on cover by Lucie Carlier

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Introduction

This book is an attempt to explain educational and psychological theories about how children learn. It provides food for thought for reflective practitioners, encouraging you to pause and reconsider why you do what you do.

Theories can be rooted in research and experimentation or they may be philosophical and hypothetical. Whatever their basis, the importance of observation is a common strand in the work of many theorists who were interested in finding out how children learn. Some were academics who became interested in children – others were experienced in working with children and developed theories to help them understand their experience. What is interesting is how often ideas which were based purely on observation are now supported by developmental theory.

We have singled out some of the key figures involved with theories about learning, particularly in the early years of education. In some cases these are linked to wider movements. Sigmund Freud, for example, is probably the best known psychoanalyst. However, other figures with psychoanalytical backgrounds who have perhaps had greater influence in education have also been included.

It is not clear why some names are remembered and others are not. Sigmund Freud is probably the best known psychoanalyst in this country, but in the United States Erikson and Fromm are more influential, perhaps because Freud fled from the Nazis to England, while Erikson and Fromm went to America.

Interaction with nature was a common strand in the thinking of the early theorist

Howard Gardner[1] says that ‘great psychologists put forward complex and intricate theories, but they are often remembered best for a striking demonstration. The founding behaviourist, Ivan Pavlov, showed that dogs can be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell. The founding psychoanalyst, Sigmund Freud, demonstrated that unconscious wishes – for example sexual satisfaction – are reflected in ordinary dreams or slips of the tongue. And Jean Piaget (1896–1980), the most important student of intellectual development, showed that young children are not able to conserve quantities, such as liquids.’ This is something to think about as you read.

About this book

To create a sense of the way in which ideas have developed and evolved, the theorists are taken in chronological order. Where a section focuses on an individual this is according to their date of birth. This does not work in every case – Piaget and Vygotsky, for example, were contemporaries but Vygotsky’s work was not widely known until some time after his death.

Towards the end of the book you will find sections relating not to individual or groups of theorists but to broader ideas. Two of these sections relate to approaches which have no clearly identifiable leading theorist. Te Whāriki was developed in New Zealand as a government initiative, with groups of academics and practitioners including Margaret Carr and Helen May. Forest schools are widely regarded as having arisen from practice in Scandinavia but as the section on forest school shows there is a longer history. The three remaining sections focus on areas of interest to early childhood practitioners namely learning through play; research into brain development and emotional intelligence.

Each section follows a similar format, beginning with some historical background and biographical details, where relevant, to place the person or topic in context. Significant dates are listed at the beginning of each section. The theory is explained and the titles of some of the books or articles they have written are listed. The influence that each theory has had and the criticisms which it has received are examined. Some of the specialist terms used in relation to a particular theory or topic are included in a glossary and each section includes some points for reflection to help you to apply the theory or approach to your own experience.

There is also an attempt to link the theory with practice and to indicate what practice based on a particular theory would look like. Much of the practice you will see or read about has key features which appear similar. The importance of observing children is emphasised within all approaches. Outdoor experience is a common theme and the link with nature was a vital element of all the pioneer thinking about early childhood education, permeating much of the eighteenth and nineteenth century writing and thinking. In the twentieth century Margaret McMillan and Susan Isaacs did much to promote outdoor play and in the twenty-first century forest schools continue to focus on the importance of nature.

You will find many other strands and connections as you read. Margaret Donaldson, for example, spent time with Piaget and Bruner. Pestalozzi was influenced by Jean-Jacques Rousseau and in turn influenced Robert Owen and Friedrich Froebel. Links with other theorists are highlighted in each section.

Overall this book can only serve as an introduction to the fascinating history and development of early childhood care and education. We hope that it will encourage you to delve deeper, helping you to understand and reflect on how you work with young children.

The child is at the centre of the learning process

NOTE TO STUDENTS

Every effort has been made to make sure that you have the information you will need to cite sources in your essays and projects. You may need to rearrange these references in your written work to meet the demands of your tutors or courses. Double check before you hand in work that you have met the relevant requirements. At the end of the book you will find information relating to each section giving references and suggestions for further reading. Remember that the information in this book is by no means the end of the story. There is much more to be read and learned from the remarkable figures outlined here. Many of the books mentioned are no longer in print, so check to see if your library can get a copy. Some of these books are available in full or part text on the internet.

A word of caution about websites: some contain excellent information, others are worthless. Always think about who has published the information and why. Any website addresses provided were valid at the time of going to press.

1 Gardner (1996) Intelligence: Multiple Perspectives, Rinehart and Winston, Holt (page 97).

John Comenius

PROFILE

Born in the late sixteenth century, John Comenius has been called the father of modern education. His thinking and philosophy have had a strong influence on the way in which we view learning today.

KEY DATES

LINKS

Pestalozzi

Piaget

His life

Jan Amos Komensky was born in Moravia in 1592, around the same time as the scientist, Galileo, the painter, Rembrandt and the writer, Milton. These three were significant figures at the beginning of a period known as the Age of Reason when thinking was characterised by people with enquiring minds who wanted evidence for arguments and often rejected traditional religious beliefs.

Comenius – as Komensky became known in a Latinised version of his name – was educated at the University of Heidelberg before becoming a bishop in the Moravian Church. It is thought that he was approached to become the first president of Harvard University, which was established in 1636, but declined because of the Church’s troubles at that time.

In 1638 he was approached to restructure the Swedish school system – a role he took up in 1642. He was also invited to become a member of an English commission for the reform of education. Although he came to England, the Civil War made progress impossible and he left for Sweden. He died in Amsterdam in 1670 but after his death, his grandson became a bishop and presided over the renewal of the Church.

His writing

Comenius wrote more than 150 books, mostly on philosophy and theology. He wrote a novel called The Labyrinth of the World,[1] which has been likened to John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress. In 1631, he published a book called The Gate of Tongues Unlocked which was designed to help children learn Latin through their first language. This was a significant shift from the normal approaches to learning Latin used at that time. He developed this approach further with the publication, in 1658, of one of the first picture books for children, The Visible World in Pictures. It consisted of illustrations labelled in both Latin and the child’s home language. It was translated into English in 1659.

His theory

Comenius believed that education begins in early childhood and should continue throughout life. He recommended sensory experiences rather than rote learning and was in favour of formal educational opportunities for women – an unusual idea in the seventeenth century. He established a branch of philosophy that he called pansophism, which literally means ‘all knowledge’. He believed that knowledge or learning, spirituality and emotional development were inseparable – a holistic view of education.

Putting the theory into practice

Comenius had high ideals and talked of developing schooling through play. There were few if any precursors to this in the seventeenth century. His emphasis on the senses was largely implemented through introducing illustrations to books. However, this was a radical step at the time. Education for girls and for the disabled were central to his belief about education. He wrote in 1657 that the slower and weaker the disposition of any man, the more he needs assistance…. Nor can any man be found whose intellect is so weak that it cannot be improved.[2]

Of girls he wrote that they are endowed with equal sharpness of mind and capacity for knowledge… and they are able to attain the highest positions… (in) the study of medicine and other things which benefit the human race.[3] He also believed, perhaps uniquely at that time, that a system of education should begin with the very young. Perhaps these are the reasons that he has been referred to as the father of modern education.[4]

What does practice look like?

After so many centuries, it is difficult to know exactly what a classroom designed by Comenius would have looked like. We do however know that although illustrated books for children and teaching in a child’s first language may seem like common sense today at that time his views were considered radical and exciting. Why else would he be invited to develop education in America, Sweden, Hungary and England?

Comenius favoured inclusive practice involving everyone, and teaching that encouraged learners to use their senses. He discouraged rote learning that would have been the more usual approach in the seventeenth century.

Above all he would encourage teachers to take account both of children’s developmental needs as learners as well as their individuality. Milestones and patterns of development had not been formally established at that time. In arguing for the unique needs of individual children Comenius would be relying on his own observation and insight into children’s learning.

Perhaps above all, Comenius’ practice was characterised by kindness. He wrote that adults should teach gently[5] ensuring that the experience of education was pleasurable for adults and children.

His influence

Comenius’ theories paved the way for subsequent developments in education. To us in the twenty first century it is perhaps unthinkable that attempts would be made to teach young children in Latin but Comenius was amongst those whose work changed ideas, highlighting the importance of a child’s first language. The fact that so many nations sought his advice has earnt him the title of teacher of nations.[6] His understanding of the importance of learning through the senses and of the holistic nature of learning remain cornerstones of educational theories today.

Piaget[7] wrote of his influence and argued that we must be careful not to jump too quickly to the idea that writing from centuries before has shaped current understanding. However, in the case of Comenius, Piaget suggests, it is difficult not to believe that later theories were built around his innovative ideas.

Common criticisms of his theory

Despite his international reputation in his lifetime, there would have been many people ready to criticise Comenius’ work and philosophy. Some criticisms would have come from those holding conflicting religious views. There would also have been those who regarded the education of girls or the use of the home language as entirely unacceptable.

Although Comenius’ work was forward looking, it was a long way from what is now seen as learner-centred education. His idea of holistic education included the spiritual aspects of development and emotions but not physical development.

Comenius was amongst the first to devise picture books for children

GLOSSARY

Pansophism: a philosophy put forward by Comenius. It literally means all knowledge but the implication is that all knowledge should be open to everyone.

POINTS FOR REFLECTION

Why do you think physical development was not seen as part of a holistic approach to education by Comenius?

Try to imagine what early childhood practice would look like if it catered only for the sons of rich parents, relied on rote learning and was given in Latin without picture books. Think too about how Comenius’ ideas might have been received by his contemporaries.

What in your view are the implications of Comenius’ statement that there is no one who cannot benefit from education?

1 www.comeniusfoundation.org/comenius.htm

2 Comenius, J. (1896) The Great Didactic, Adam and Charles Black, London (first published in 1657).

3 Comenius, J. (1896) The Great Didactic, Adam and Charles Black, London (first published in 1657).

4 Cited in Nutbrown et al. (2008) Early Childhood Education, Sage, London.

5 Cited in Nutbrown et al. (2008) Early Childhood Education, Sage, London.

6 Cited in Nutbrown et al. (2008) Early Childhood Education, Sage, London.

7 Piaget, J. (1957) ‘Jan Amos Comenius (1592–1670)’ in Prospects vol. XXIII no.1/2 1993 pp173–196, Unesco International Bureau of Education (http://www.ibe.unesco.org/publications/ThinkersPdf/comeniuse.PDF).

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

PROFILE

Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Swiss philosopher whose book, Emile, influenced child-rearing practices in eighteenth century France. Rousseau’s educational theories continued to influence theorists and philosophers throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

KEY DATES

LINKS

Pestalozzi

Froebel

His life

Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s mother died when he was just a few days old and he was brought up by his father and an aunt. At the age of 12 he was apprenticed to an engraver who treated him badly and when he was 16 he ran away. For the next ten years he travelled, staying in France and Italy. At 18, he decided to teach music, but gave up when he found he was only a little ahead of his pupils. His attempt to tutor two small boys in Lyon in 1740 lasted less than a year. It did, however, start him thinking about education.

In 1745, Rousseau began a relationship with Therese Levasseur, who was to bear him five children. All five were placed in an orphanage soon after their birth, it is said against their mother’s wishes. It is also said that Rousseau came to regret this action later.[1] Rousseau wrote a number of books, but it was one called Emile that earned him a name in France. Parents claimed to be bringing up their children a la Jean-Jacques – which involved not having a wet nurse, being bathed in cold water and being flimsily dressed – to be closer to nature. After his death, in 1778, crowds paid homage to him at his burial place.

His writing

Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote a mixture of novels and non-fiction books on music, philosophy and politics. Emile – his book on education – is a mixture of fiction and philosophy. He also wrote a book called The Social Contract. (Both are published by Penguin.)

His theory

Rousseau described children as noble savages. He believed that we are born essentially good and are part of nature. Nature made children to be loved and helped but because they are innocent this help should not be intrusive. He wrote that adults should let children be children and revere childhood. He also believed in fostering self-reliance.

He suggested three broad stages of development. The first, up to 12 years of age, he saw as a stage when children were animal like. The second from 12 to 16 years of age represented the beginning of rational thought, while from 16 onwards adulthood began.

Rousseau thought that governments should work to establish freedom, equality and justice. Their role was not just to allow the will of the majority to hold sway but to take on the task of ensuring that everyone, including the weak, was protected. Education would support this process by cultivating the good in people. We should all be educated for our own good, not for that of society which, Rousseau said, was corrupt.

Putting the theory into practice

Rousseau never put his theories into practice – indeed he sent his own children to live in orphanages. However, many parents in eighteenth century France were influenced by Rousseau’s writing. Until then, among members of French society it was accepted practice to place babies with wet nurses and swaddle them for their early months. This changed and the changes were largely attributed to Rousseau. Other writers and thinkers condemned some of the practices adopted.

Rousseau believed in freedom. He wrote, for example[2] that ‘the only habit the child should be allowed is that of having no habits… Reverse the usual procedure and you will almost always do right’. Freedom (for boys) was to involve integration with nature. Development was driven by nature and, in his view, contact with society corrupted children. This is reflected in his famous words written in 1762[3] that Man is born free but everywhere he is in chains. Emile, the subject of Rousseau’s famous book of the same name, is depicted as growing up in the countryside where nature provided his education and taught him how to live