Treating Wool - Spinning and Drying

A History of Textiles and Weaving

A textile or cloth is a flexible woven material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibres, often referred to as ‘thread’ or ‘yarn’. Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibres of wool, flax, cotton, or other material to produce long strands. Textiles are then in turn, formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, or pressing fibres together (felt). The words ‘fabric’ and ‘cloth’ are used in textile assembly trades (such as tailoring and dressmaking) as synonyms for textile. However, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage. Textile refers to any material made of interlacing fibres. Fabric refers to any material made through weaving, knitting, spreading, crocheting, or bonding that may be used in production of further goods (garments, etc.). And finally, Cloth may be used synonymously with fabric but often refers to a finished piece of fabric used for a specific purpose (e.g., table cloth).

The word 'textile' comes from Latin, textilis, meaning 'woven' (from textus, the past participle of the verb texere, 'to weave'). From ancient origins, the production of textiles has altered almost beyond recognition however. Industrialisation and the introduction of modern manufacturing techniques have changed both the working methods – speed and scale, and the end product itself. For some types of textiles though; plain weave, twill, or satin weave, there is little difference between the ancient and modern methods. Textile production has been evidenced as early as Neolithic times. In 2013, linen cloth was found at the ‘Çatalhöyük’ site (Turkey), dated at around 700 BCE. Another fragment has been found in Fayum (a city in middle Egypt), dated to about 5000 BCE. Flax was the predominant fibre in Egypt at this time (3600 BCE), hugely popular in the Nile Valley, though wool became the primary fibre used in other cultures around 2000 BCE.

Emerging from these early examples, weaving has developed into an enormous industry. Essentially, weaving is a method of fabric production in which two distinct sets of yarns are interlaced at right angles to form a fabric. Other techniques include: knitting, lace making, felting and braiding. The longitudinal threads are called the ‘warp’ and the lateral threads are the ‘weft’ or ‘filling’. (Weft, or woof is an old English word meaning ‘that which is woven.’) Cloth is usually woven on a loom, a device that holds the warp threads in place while filling threads are woven through them. The way that these warp and filling threads interlace with each other is called ‘the weave’. The majority of woven products are created with one of three basic weaves: ‘plain weave’ (strong and hard-wearing, used for fashion and furnishing fabrics, with a simple criss-cross pattern), ‘satin weave’ (which typically has a glossy surface and a dull back, characterized by four or more weft yarns floating over a warp yarn, or vice versa) and finally, ‘twill’ (a pattern of diagonal parallel ribs - in contrast with a satin and plain weave).

Before the Industrial Revolution (1760-1840), weaving was a manual craft and wool was the principal staple. In the great wool districts a form of factory system was introduced, but in more rural areas weavers worked from home on a putting-out system. The wooden looms of that time were either ‘broad’ or ‘narrow’; broad looms were those too wide for the weaver to pass the shuttle through the shed, necessitating employing an assistant (often an apprentice). This ceased to be necessary after John Kay invented the flying shuttle in 1733 however. The flying shuttle essentially involved a box, at either end of the loom, which caught the shuttle at the end of its journey, and propelled the shuttle on its return trip. This massively sped up the process of weaving, consequently resulting in a shortage of thread and a surplus of weaving capacity! The problem was largely solved with the opening of the Bridgewater Canal in June 1761, allowing cotton to be brought into Manchester, an area rich in fast flowing streams that could be used to power machinery.

Edmund Cartwright was the first to attempt to mechanise weaving. He built a factory at Doncaster and obtained a series of patents between 1785 and 1792. Cartwright later sold these to the Grimshaw brothers of Manchester, but their Knott Mill mysteriously burnt down the year afterwards. Whatever the process, woven ‘grey cloth’ - the end-product of weaving, was then sent to ‘finishers’, where it was bleached, dyed and printed. Natural dyes were originally used, with synthetic dyes coming in the second half of the nineteenth century (the need for these chemicals was an important factor in the development of the chemical industry too). Up until this point, all textiles were made from natural fibres; animal substances such as wool or silk, plant based materials such as cotton, flax or jute, and mineral sources, such as asbestos and glass fibres. In the twentieth century however, these were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum.

Today, the textile industry is thriving, creating many sub-industries – such as those purely devoted to colouring or patterning the woven material. Many famous fashion designers, such as Armani, Gianni Versace and Emilio Pucci have relied on textile designs to set their fashion collections apart; easily recognisable by their signature print driven designs. In properly printed fabrics the colour is bonded with the fibre, so as to resist washing and friction. This can be done by stencils, wood-blocks, engraved plates, rollers or silkscreens. Woodblock printing, still used in India and elsewhere today, is the oldest of these dating back to at least 220 CE in China. Most commonly however, textiles are dyed all over, with fabrics now available in almost every colour. Coloured designs can be created by simple printing, weaving together fibres of different colours (tartan or Uzbek Ikat), adding coloured stitches to finished fabric (embroidery), creating patterns by resist dyeing methods, tying off areas of cloth and dyeing the rest (tie-dyeing), or drawing wax designs on cloth and dyeing in between them (batik).

Textiles have been a fundamental part of human life since the beginning of civilization. As has been evidenced, the methods and materials used to make them have expanded enormously, but the function of fabric itself has largely remained the same! The history of textile arts is also the history of international trade, as silks were brought from China to India, Africa and Europe, whilst Tyrian purple dye was an important trade good in the ancient Mediterranean. We hope this book inspires your own journey into textiles and weaving. Enjoy.

SPINNING WOOL

SPINNING WOOL

THE origin of spinning dates back to very early times. Starting with the primitive forms of hand spinning it has gradually developed into the present-day commercial industry of machine spinning.

Here we are concerned, however, with the revival of the ancient form of hand-spinning, for it provides a fruitful occupation for the craftswoman at home and is of real educational value to children at school, being the first stage in the making of cloth. Further, the slightly irregular thickness of hand-spun wool when woven into cloth is particularly pleasing as compared with the regular, mechanical appearance of cloth woven with machine-spun wool.

There are two methods of spinning, one with a Spindle which is the oldest form of the craft and quite inexpensive. The other method is with a Spinning Wheel, which, although more costly, provides a much speedier method than the spindle, and is therefore recommended where any quantity of wool is to be spun. It is worked by foot power, leaving both hands free for manipulating the wool.

Both these methods are described.

WOOL

Long-stapled wool is most suitable for hand-spinning, for example that which comes from Shropshire, Lincolnshire and Leicestershire. South Downs and Shetland Wools are not so long but are noted for their softness. These qualities should be considered together with the purpose for which the wool is to be used. The long-stapled wool will stand hard wear better, but the softer wool is more pleasant for such articles as scarves, etc., where the strain is not so great as with some garments. The raw wool or fleece can be purchased by the pound. Most spinners prefer to retain the natural grease in the wool as it is much easier to spin in this condition. Some, however, object to its slightly dirty nature and prefer it washed. Then it is necessary to oil it with olive oil before it is spun, as otherwise it is difficult to manipulate and breaks easily. Before spinning, the wool must be teased or straightened out. There are two methods of doing this, the first is to tease the wool with the fingers only, while for the second carders are used. This method is known as carding the wool. Some workers prefer the former method because they maintain that the carding is inclined to weaken the fibres of the wool. However, the latter is certainly a more speedy method where any quantity of wool is to be used.

TO TEASE THE WOOL WITH THE FINGERS.

Take a handful of wool, remove all bits of twigs and other hard fragments and gently pull the fleece apart with the fingers. Any remaining dirt and dust should fall away during this process. When all the tangles have been straightened pull the wool into rope form and it will then be ready for spinning.

CARDING THE WOOL.

Before carding the wool it must be teased. To do this take a handful of wool in the left hand and remove all hard bits as before. Then with the right hand draw away small pieces at a time for the full length of the staple with a quick movement. If the wool has been previously washed, a little olive oil should be worked very gently with the fingers into the pile of teased wool. As the figures 1 and 2 show, the carders consist of two rectangular pieces of wood with a handle attached and small wire teeth fixed on one side of each piece. They are used as follows: Hold one carder in the left hand with the teeth uppermost, the handle pointing away from the body. Place a small handful of teased wool on it, hold the other carder in the right hand with the teeth facing downwards and the handle facing towards the body (see fig. 1). Draw the right hand carder down sharply against the other one two or three times and the wool will be transferred on to the right carder. Now this must be transferred back to the left carder. Raise the handle of the left hand carder and turn the right hand one so that the teeth are facing and the handles pointing in the same direction (see fig. 2). Lift the right hand one and press it down on to the left carder and the wool will cling to it. Repeat this entire process twice more and the wool will then be ready to be taken off as follows: Hold the carders in an upright position and press the right hand carder down against the left hand one and then the left carder against the right one. Repeat this, removing the wool from right to left and left to right and it will gradually come away. When it is sufficiently loose shake it from the right carder on to the back of the left one and roll it between the backs of the two carders until the wool is in a neat roll called a rolag, ready for spinning.

FIGURE 2

FIGURE 3

SPINNING WITH THE SPINDLE

The spindle consists of two parts, an upright stick or stem with a hook at one end and a point at the other lower end, and a wooden disc which is fixed to the stick a few inches above the point to help the spindle to spin easily.

A length of about 18″ of spun wool is required to begin. Machine-spun wool will do for the purpose. Tie the end of the wool to the spindle just above the wooden disc. Pass it over the disc and round the stem below it, then up again from here to the top of the stem, and loop it round the hook with a half hitch as follows: With the wool on the right hand side of the spindle place the first finger of the right hand behind the wool. Twist the finger backwards over it picking up a loop, which is slipped off the finger on to the