Governance, Environment, and Sustainable Human Development in Drc: The State, Civil Society and the Private Economy and Environmental Policies in Changing Trends in the Human Development Index After Independence

Copyright © 2016 by Nene Ndeta Mobimba.

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Rev. date: 07/08/2016

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CONTENTS

Foreword

Acknowledgments

Abstract

Chapter I    Introduction

Chapter II    Governance

Chapter III    Governance Of Economy Of Environment And Natural Resources

Chapter IV    Governance Policy Of Urban Ecology

Chapter V    Sanitation And Waste Management

Chapter VI    Natural Disasters, Natural Hazards, And Humanitarian Situation

Chapter VII    Tools Of Governance Structure And Prevention Of Environmental Conflicts

Chapter VIII    Assessment Of Governance In The DRC

Chapter IX    Impact Of Governance

Chapter X    Conclusions

References

TABLES

Table 1:    Index of perception of corruption.

Table 2:    Coverage rate of drinking water in DRC provinces.

Table 3:    Population with access to improved water supply in urban areas.

Table 4:    Population with access to improved water source in rural areas.

Table 5:    Public health expenditure.

Table 6:    Health expenditure (% of GDP).

Table 7:    Health expenditure per capita.

Table 8:    Situation of housing in Kinshasa and the DRC.

Table 9:    Evolution of the numbers of cattle, small ruminants, and poultry.

Table 10:    Index of tuberculosis per 100,000 people.

Table 11:    Children immunized against measles.

Table 12:    Rate of population of Congolese women.

Table 13:    Rate of participation of women.

Table 14:    Rate of women in the national parliament.

Table 15:    Incidence of poverty in magnitude depending on the province in the DRC.

Table 16:    Index of democracy in the DRC.

Table 17:    Civil Liberty Index.

Table 18:    Press Freedom Index.

Table 19:    Percentage of changes in forest area.

Table 20:    Evolution of forest area in square kilometers.

Table 21:    Percentage of protected marine waters.

Table 22:    Square kilometer of territory.

Table 23:    Indices of main mineral deposits and ornamental stones in the DRC/provinces.

Table 23:    Investment in telecommunications with private participation.

Table 24:    Growth rate of the DRC.

Table 25:    Birth rate per 1,000.

Table 26:    Mortality rate per 1,000.

Table 27:    Urban population.

Table 28:    Rural population.

Table 29:    Evolution of the population of the DRC.

Table 30:    Net imported energy.

Table 31:    Population with access to electricity.

Table 32:    Lighting source in Kinshasa.

Table 33:    Total energy of combustible renewables and waste.

Table 34:    Oil equivalent energy (KT).

Table 35:    Energy use of oil equivalent in KT.

Table 36:    Energy use in kilogram of oil equivalent per capita.

Table 37:    Pump prices of gasoline (US$ per liter).

Table 38:    Pump prices of diesel fuel (US$ per liter).

Table 39:    Fossil fuels consumed.

Table 40:    Alternative and nuclear energy.

Table 41:    Emissions of CO2 and environmental footprint.

Table 42:    Total amount of methane emissions.

Table 43:    Methane emission (KT of CO2 equivalent)

Table 44:    Emissions of nitrous oxide from agriculture.

Table 45:    Nitrous oxide emissions in tonnes.

Table 46:    Sanitation coverage rate in the DRC/provinces.

Table 47:    Rate of defecation in the open air in the DRC/provinces

Table 48:    Rate of population with access to improved sanitation facilities.

Table 49:    Population of Congolese refugees.

Table 50:    Population of refugees in the DRC.

Table 51:    Risk index of the DRC.

Table 52:    Ten most dangerous countries in Africa in 2012.

Table 53:    Average of management of the public and institutional sector.

Table 54:    Average of the management of structural policies.

Table 55:    Average of economic management.

Table 56:    Average of social inclusion and equity policies.

Table 57:    Average of resource allocations.

Table 58:    Credit allocated to the private sector.

Table 59:    Ease of doing business.

Table 60:    Import documents.

Table 61:    Export documents.

Table 62:    Import value index.

Table 63:    Export value index.

Table 64:    Global logistics performance.

Table 65:    Directories of civil society, 2012.

Table 66:    Environmental sustainability, 1970–2011.

Table 67:    Impact of environmental threats in 2000–2011.

Table 68:    Perceptions of well-being and the environment in 2006–2011.

Table 69:    Environment, 1970–2012.

Table 70:    Evolution of the values of the Human Development Index, 1980–2012.

Table 71:    Human Development Index and its components in 2011.

Table 72:    Human Development Index and its components in 2013.

Table 73:    Human Development Index adjusted for inequality, 2000–2011.

Table 74:    Human Development Index adjusted for inequality, 2000–2013.

Table 75:    Gender Inequality Index and related indicators in 2005–2011.

Table 76:    Gender Inequality Index, 2006–2013.

Table 77:    Multidimensional Poverty Index from 2000 to 2009….

Table 78:    Multidimensional Poverty Index.

Table 79:    Social integration in 2005–2012.

Table 80:    Population and economy, 2006–2011.

Table 81:    Population in 2000–2012.

Table 82:    Resource control, 2000–2011.

Table 83:    Education and health, 2001–2010.

Table 84:    Education, 2002–2011.

Table 85:    Health, 2005–2010.

Table 86:    International trade flows of goods and services in 2010.

Table 87:    International capital flows and migration, 2005–2010….

Table 88:    Innovation and technology, 2002–2011.

Table 89:    Change in the HDI since 1975.

Table 90:    Evolution from 1980 to 2009.

Table 91:    Evolution from 1980 to 2010.

Table 92:    Evolution from 1980 to 2011.

Table 93:    Evolution from 1980 to 2012.

Table 94:    Evolution from 1980 to 2013.

Table 95:    Development aid in current U.S. dollars.

Table 96:    Share of development aid in GNI.

Table 97:    Ratio of aid per capita.

FIGURES

Fig. 1    Joint Development of principle

Fig. 2    Vicious Cycle Of Urban Transport Degradation

Fig. 3    Sustainable solutions

To the Higher Institute of Health Sciences of the Red Cross, which allowed me to showcase my talents as a teacher and researcher in my scientific academic career.

Foreword

The administrative history of the DRC shows that this country has gone through several stages of the territorial division before independence achieved on June 30, 1960. In 1924, there were four provinces in the DRC, namely, Congo-Kasai, Équateur, Katanga, and Orientale Province. From 1935 to 1963, the number increased to six provinces, namely, Coquilhatville (Équateur after 1947), Elisabethville (Katanga after 1947), Costermansville (Kivu after 1947), Leopoldville (which included the districts of Leopoldville, Bas-Congo [Boma], LacLéopold II [Inongo], and Kwango [Kikwit]), Lusambo (Kasai after 1947), and Stanleyville (East after 1947).

Twenty-One to Nine Provinces

In 1963, there were twenty-one provinces, some say provincettes Leopoldville. These are the following provincettes: Congo-Central (capital: Matadi), Cuvette Centrale (capital: Coquilhatville, now Mbandaka), Upper Congo (capital: Stanleyville, now Kisangani), Eastern Katanga (capital: Elizabethville, now Lubumbashi), Kibali-Ituri (capital: Bunia), Central Kivu (capital: Bukavu), Kwango (capital: Kenge), Kwilu (capital: Kikwit), Leopoldville (capital: Leopoldville, now Kinshasa), Lomani (capital: Kabinda), Lualaba (capital: Kolwezi), Luluabourg (capital: Luluabourg, now Kananga), Mai-Ndombe (capital: Inongo), Maniema (capital: Port-Empain, now Kindu), Middle Congo (capital: Lisala), North Katanga (capital: Albertville, now Kalemie), North Kivu (capital: Luofu), Sankuru (capital: Lodja), South Kasai (capital: Bakwanga), Ubangi (capital: Gemena), Uele (capital: Paulis, now Isiro), and Unit-Kasai (capital: Tshikapa).

A year after the takeover by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu in 1966, the number of provinces fell to eight and Kinshasa, namely, Bandundu, Kongo Central, Équateur, Oriental, Kasai-Occidental, Kasai-Oriental, Kinshasa, Kivu, and Katanga.

During the Second Republic, which ran from 1971 to 1997, the number of provinces fluctuated because of the political moods of the Mobutu regime. In 1971, the province of Katanga became Shaba Province, Kongo-Central became the Lower Zaire Province, and Orientale Province became the Upper Zaire Province. In 1988, the Kivu Province was divided into the provinces of North Kivu, South Kivu, and Maniema. In 1997, Shaba became Katanga, the province of Bas-Zaire became the province of Bas-Congo, and the province of Upper Zaire became the province of Upper Congo and Orientale Province.

Apart from all other political considerations, the new administrative structure of the country had the advantage of creating jobs, including eleven governors in the country. We have now installed new provinces with twenty-six governors.

However, if the dismemberment of the provinces help solve the unemployment problem, we will have to add another, that is, the head of state has to supervise administrative entities, lack of infrastructure, food insecurity, health insecurity, environmental insecurity, and individual and political insecurity.

Note that in the DRC, the first two head of state had been taken away a result of a coups d’Etat (the general Desire Mobutu against Joseph Kasavubu November 24, 1965). Laurent Kabila against Mobutu Desire May 17, 1997 and a third Desire Laurent Kabila assassinated January 16, 2001. Replaced by the current President be telling his son in power for over 15 years at least. The trail country turns the page for men strong password that has strong institutions.

Acknowledgments

On World Thinking Day, celebrated on February 22 each year, a writer had said, All life necessarily involves a waiting time between desire and its fulfillment; between the design of a plan and its implementation. However, this book, to which we endorse our own signature, is a participatory work. It would not have been made public without the valuable assistance of some people.

I want to thank Henri Bikoko Eseka, professor at the National Pedagogical University, for his scientific direction. To my former colleagues section chief Marie Esako (Science nurses) and Dieudonnee Bafutanga (laboratory) for leading the teaching and research together. Thanks to my son, Nivard Ndeta Mobimba, for his dedication in typing the manuscript. We apply the words of Pierre Corneille in Le Cid: Value does not depend upon age. Thanks to my wife, Jeanine Akuda Malengi, for her patience and love, which has allowed us to keep smiling in the most difficult times. I express my gratitude to Gary Doxy for the correction of some text.

Special thanks to all our former students in the Higher Institute of Health Science and Higher Institute of Medical Technology of Kinshasa and those taking up industrial engineering environment in Congo-Brazzaville, especially those with whom we had had fruitful scientific discussions during lessons, lectures, and debates, for leading and joining us till the end and for the memories. They would find through these lines the recognition of their opinions. We can not close this page without thanking the international institutions (UNDP, World Bank, UNEP, and UNICEF) and national well as some characters Mazalto, Judicaël Fétiveau Augustine Mpoyi, Alice Mufungizi and Alexa Tiemann who I have personally inspired by their publications and reports. I thank them for having cited some passages of their publications.

Abstract

This book considers Congolese society in a broader framework of social and environmental dimensions. It explains to a large extent how these dimensions depend on governance and assesses the impact of governance on the indices of human development and quality of life. Our Environment, Our Wealth is about environment for development (1) to help fight against poverty. Protecting the environment is essential to attain a better life for the people. Whether it’s about climate change, energy innovation for clean air, forest management, freshwater, or waste, the environment affects all areas of our lives. Although these phenomena are not new, interest in environmental issues has been renewed in recent years. Faced with such challenges, specialists capable of combining natural and social sciences and humanities are needed to understand the different factors involved in its development.

The DRC national government participated in the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in Rio (2012) and in Stockholm (1972), the Brundtland Commission (1987), the Johannesburg Conference (2002), and finally the Rio Summit (1992); DRC and its different government divisions have organized and participated in many forums at global, regional, and domestic levels to discuss the issues of welfare, environment, development, and security. The weather was not always discussed, but for concrete action, they had established legal and institutional frameworks and plans and determined priorities and operational implementation means to address the economic, social, and environmental problems that the people were facing.

Because the links between development and the environment are considered as evidence, review of major indices and indicators used in research on human development by international partners, specialized agencies (UNDP, UNEP, UNICEF, and the World Bank), and respective governments showed apparent flaws after 50 years.

Indeed, using the concept of sustainable development, we integrate three considerations:

1. The basic needs, specifically those of the poorest populations, which have been made the development priority. In other words, we conducted a review based on the people’s perception of the level reached by the Congolese population to lead a long and healthy life, to acquire knowledge, and to have access to resources needed to attain a decent standard of living.

2. The respect for the ability of the environment to meet present and future needs. In fact, there is an imbalance between the exponentially growing needs of a population and a rich environment but progressively degrading. Indeed, we have shown that the environmental situation has a direct impact on many human development indicators. An Indian proverb, quoted by UNDP, illustrates the concept of sustainable development: We do not inherit the Earth from our ancestors; we borrow it from our children.

3. The definition and implementation of policies on the environment in the interests of the fundamental rights of the population. Because poor governance negatively and directly influences the living conditions of citizens, any government that ignores environmental priorities and does not integrate them into the process of political decision making violates human rights. The DRC, a country in the heart of Africa, lives in a perpetual contradiction between its huge natural resources and the almost absolute poverty of its population. Thus, the environmental problems today in the DRC because of low environmental governance, in the words of UNEP, remain—according to the Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation, and Tourism—a major handicap. Environmental governance encompasses and transcends the state to include the private sector and civil society. The protection and defense of the environment and life quality promotion is a duty of all, especially the state. Ultimately, the analysis of the situation of governance in the DRC shows that the country has not achieved the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) described below for sustainable development:

- Eradicate poverty in all its forms and everywhere

- Eliminate hunger and food insecurity, improve nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture

- Enable everyone to live healthy and promote the welfare of all at any age

- Ensure access for all to quality education on an equal basis and promote learning opportunities throughout one’s life

- Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls

- Ensure access for all to water and sanitation and sustainable water resource management

- Ensure access for all to reliable, sustainable, modern, and affordable energy

- Promote sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth; full and productive employment; and decent work for all

- Build resilient infrastructure, promote sustainable industrialization that benefits everyone, and encourage innovation

- Reduce inequalities within and among countries

- Ensure that cities and human settlements are open to all, safe, resilient, and sustainable

- Establish sustainable consumption and production

- Take urgent action against climate change and its impacts

- Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for sustainable development

- Preserve and restore terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, fight against desertification, halt and reverse land degradation, and end the depletion of biodiversity

- Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, ensure access for all to justice, and implement at all levels effective and accountable institutions

- Strengthen the capacity to implement the global partnership for sustainable development and revitalization

This book deals exclusively with matters of environmental governance in the broader sense and is part of the bibliographic research framework through three main sources of information: the literature for the reconstruction of the past, the evolutionary observation of the facts, and the Internet for information from national and international partners and specialized agencies.

Chapter I

Introduction

This book would have had the title The Urban Environment in Distress: City-Province of Kinshasa, A Record of Fifty Years, but since the previous results of the manuscript were released before its publication, we were forced to change not only the direction of the research but also the title and expanded its scope nationally. This book shows in a very practical way the present reality and the physical and visible environment of Congolese towns, its history, and the first invisible cities. In fact, the first invisible cities existed and still exist in the mind and imagination of the Congolese (2). Nevertheless, true to our primary objective, several illustrative examples were drawn from the environmental reality of the city-province of Kinshasa.

Indeed, the theme is based on the importance of the concepts that are by essence interconnected and aimed at integrating the long-term environmental issues in the development process. The statement of UNEP is, is a healthy environment, healthy people not significant?(3). It is finally among the interdependent pillars of governance, economy, society, and environment (4) traditionally associated with the concept of sustainable development that we have learned two major issues and keys to sustainable human development.

Thus, the question arises on the balance between environmental governance and sustainable human development. The latter seeks to include the notion of well-being and happiness based on articles 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, and 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (5).

Indeed, sustainable human development should not be confused with a world map of happiness established by Adrian White using five criteria: health, wealth, education, national identity, and landscape beauty. The intrinsic complexity of sustainable human development must be absolutely recognized because the assessment of the quality of life is a much more complex exercise than can be achieved with a single number, even if the selection of variables to include is actually wise, as well as its measurement.

Human development, parallel with the concept of economic development, is a notion of public interest that considers the well-being of humans not just in terms of the economy and income since economic growth does not necessarily improve the quality of life of the population by creating disparities.

The concepts of human development, sustainable development, and social development have appeared in national policies in the early ’90s. United Nations has played a major role in promoting these concepts and their dissemination within the government by holding a series of international conferences on the environment—human environment (Stockholm, 1972); sustainable development (Rio, 1992); human rights (Vienna, 1994); social development (Copenhagen, 1995); population (Cairo, 1996); the city (Istanbul, 1998). Sustainable human development is a global concept of development (including human resource development, basic needs, and well-being).

Human development is the development of the people for the people (present and future) by the people. Its objective is to develop the range of options and capabilities of all individuals because the right to development is an inalienable human right, by virtue of which all people are entitled to participate in, contribute to, and enjoy economic, social, cultural, and political development, in which all human rights and fundamental freedoms can be fully realized and from which every individual can benefit. (6)

So sustainable human development means increased freedoms and potential of individuals in all aspects: economic, social, cultural, ethical, and political. The components of freedoms that impede sustainable human development in the DRC are endogenous and exogenous. Among the endogenous factors, we note a few:

Democracy: Sustainable human development goes hand in hand with democracy, which is a flawed system but a priori self-correcting in the long term. Ineffective policy is sanctioned by the elections. Democratic systems are generally more stable and conducive to human development. They set up the most redistributive systems of wealth and public education, health, and socio-environment.

Participation: Without the effective participation of people in the events and processes that affect their lives, national human development methods will be neither desirable nor sustainable. Individuals must be able to influence decisions and results, and it will be crucial to providing young people with economic opportunities and a greater political participation and admissibility.

The history of the DRC is full of examples of popular rebellions against the government. Such uprisings can hinder human development, as social unrest hampers investment and government expenditure of resources increases to maintain law and order.

Social integration: The absence of this element has been recognized by the recent commitment of the DRC to sustainable development by reaffirming during the preparatory work REDD+ integration as one of the four pillars of the Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS) on the protection of the environment and the fight against climate change and by launching a national sustainable development strategy and climate plan.

The issue of integrating the environment into sectoral policies is not new. By the early 2000s, the Multisectoral Emergency Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Program had encouraged the creation of environmental units within the various ministries to ensure the assessment and environmental monitoring of the activities supported by the program. Most of these units have since disappeared, apart from a few exceptions, such as the Ministry for Infrastructure and Works and the Ministry of Mines, which created a directorate manager of environmental protection in mining (DMEP).

Indeed, development involves the expansion of individual capacities. However, individuals are interlinked; and consequently, the type of relationship between individuals is an important element in the building of sustainable and united society.

The integration of different groups can be critical for social well-being and stability to achieve economic success. Inequality and exclusion are social injustices that profoundly weaken human freedoms. An integrated society founded by effective institutions enables a person to act collectively, emphasizing trust and solidarity between the groups. These institutions include formal nongovernment organizations, informal cooperative associations, and standards and rules of conduct. They exert efforts on individual human development, unity, and social stability.

The function of these institutions and their impact on people can be described as social skills. The extent to which social skills promote more united societies can be evaluated based on their ability to achieve social inclusion and social stability.

Equity and social justice: Every person has the right to lead a fulfilling life according to their values and personal aspirations. No one should be condemned to a short and miserable existence for the sole fact of being born in the wrong race or class, the wrong gender or ethnic group, or the wrong country (7).

Greater equity between men and women and between countries is not only important in itself but also for the promotion of human development. Inequalities hamper the pace of human development, sometimes to prevent it altogether. Examples include inequalities in access to health care, education, and income. The impact of inequality can persist for generations. Countries with persistent inequity have reduced social mobility.

Personal safety: Human security is within the scope of various threats such as hunger, disease, crime, unemployment, violations of human rights, and environmental challenges.

Food and nutrition insecurity is closely linked to our basic needs. The country is facing high food prices, and the population is unable to afford two meals a day. The security problem in the home is one of the most common causes of impoverishment because of the loss of income and medical expenses, which force many to have debts or to mortgage their property for less quality care.

Crime: Freedom from fear should be reflected in low crime rate, particularly homicides. Studies show that the homicide rate measures engagement and civic trust. In the DRC, the homicide rate has been estimated at 21.7% in 2008 (8) (rate per 100,000 inhabitants).

Violent crime undermines the trust placed in human development (present and future), reduces the competitiveness of industries and services by imposing significant costs in security matters, and is detrimental to the investment climate. High-crime rates may also cause brain drain. In addition, the allocation of resources to crime control reduces the funds that should have been used to invest in health and education and impedes social inclusion and human development.

Among the external factors, we note the lack of political will of the international community that applies the Ostrich policy toward the DRC.

II.1. Sustainable human development approach in a fragile state

The approach in terms of sustainable human development was born of the need to consider new development options focused on comprehensive and sustainable development of men and women.

The objective of sustainable human development is to promote the creation of an environment offering the best opportunities for the fulfillment of individual and collective development within a society. It seeks the well-being and overall sustainability of individuals through economic growth that integrates rather than marginalizes the population and therefore needs to create jobs and assure an equitable distribution of income.

The fundamental question is whether the DRC is a sustainable state. This question does not search for the limit to the Congo’s ability to feed its citizens but rather tends to measure the average level of the country in terms of human potential. It is based on the fundamental principles that stimulation of social unity; the state’s commitment to education, health, and protection; and its openness to trade integration are the means to move toward equitable and sustainable human development.

A sustainable state has better governance of the environment at large.

In recent years, scientists are increasingly worried about the long-term effects of the deteriorating conditions of the urban environment not only on health but also on human nature itself. As highlighted by Tony McMichael, epidemiologist of the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, we are more bound to say that increased exposure to exogenous specific dangers is a cause of ill health. We also realize that natural biophysical processes that underpin the sustainability of good health have disappeared or have changed.

Some ecologists use the term environmental distress syndrome (9) to describe the environmental degradation and ensuing results for health. Paul Epstein of Harvard Medical School lists four symptoms of environmental distress syndrome:

1. The reemergence of infectious diseases, including typhoid, cholera, and pneumonia, and the emergence of new diseases, such as tuberculosis, which resisted the drugs and disorders of the human reproductive system related to industrial chemicals

2. The loss of biodiversity and thus the loss of potential sources of new medicines and food crops

3. The decline of pollinators, such as bees (colony collapse syndrome), birds, bats, butterflies, and beetles, which are essential for the reproduction of flowering plants (vines, apple trees, soybeans, and cotton)

4. The harmful algal blooms along the coasts around the world, leading to deadly outbreaks of new diseases, such as ciguatera fish poisoning and paralytic shellfish poisoning, if swallowed

The work carried out by the ICC on the state of the national environment of the DRC led to the production in 1996 of the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) together with a plan of priority environmental actions implementing the national Agenda 21. The main environmental problems identified were the lack of institutional development, ineffective water and land resources management, air pollution, imbalance of natural ecosystems, cultural heritage and historical problems, and poor management of the urban environment. PRSP-I in 2006 and PRSP-II in 2012 noted environmental distress in all cities of the DRC, namely, lack of social infrastructure; problems in sanitation, transport, energy (electricity, water, etc.), education, health, and housing; and urban poverty.

The environment must not be considered a luxury by rich countries. Environmental resources and the environment built by man, such as clean water, clean air, forests, grasslands, marine resources, and agro-ecosystems, contribute to social and economic development and are the bases.

The environmental data also cover forests, biodiversity, and emissions of pollutants. Other relevant indicators for the environment are agriculture, rural development, energy and mining, infrastructure, and urban development.

According to AFNOR in 2012, a state is considered sustainable if sustainable ecosystem components and their functions are preserved for present and future generations.

Indeed, ecosystem components include—in addition to human beings and the physical environment—plants and animals as described above. For human beings, sustainable human development signifies a balance in meeting basic needs: economic, environmental, social, and cultural conditions of life within the country. A sustainable state is a state that is committed, strong, dynamic, and responsible and develops policies for the public and private sectors, based on a vision and a long-term leadership, standards and shared values, laws, and institutions that promote trust and unity.

To achieve a lasting transformation, the country must adopt a consistent and balanced human development approach. The analysis of progress on each of the indicators of human development in the DRC remains diverse for several years, although partial improvements are noted in some areas.

Concerning the health condition of the population, inequality in access to health care is crucial. Health problems in the home are one of the most common causes of impoverishment in the country because of loss of income and medical expenses to be incurred. The MECNT reports that the share of expenditure on social sectors in the state budget does not appear to have significantly improved and remains low, less than 5% for the health sector (10), far from the commitment of the heads of state in Abuja to bring it to 15%. Thus, the DRC is among the six countries that have low medical expenses valued at $6 in 2008.

Life expectancy at birth, which gives an idea of the population’s health condition, is 48.7 years as indicated in the report of MECNT (11). Sanitation improvement is not significant since the share of the population with access to improved sanitation increased from 10% to 17% between 1990 and 2007. Regarding access to drinking water, the rate of access to improved water source increased from 12% in 1995 to 17% in 2010. HIV/AIDS prevalence rate decreased from 5% to 4.3% of the population between 1990 and 2008 as specified by the MECNT (12), which would, according to the government, in 2015 reach the MDG target of halting the spread of the epidemic. However, in the fight against malaria, progress is low.

Educational attainment measured by average years of schooling and the literacy rate is 3.5 years, and the expected duration of schooling is 8.5 years. In the education sector, the budget is less than 4% before against 7% in 2002. The progress in education for all is real but insufficient to reach the MDG as confirmed by the report of the Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation, and Tourism (MECNT) in 2012. The net rate of primary school enrollment rose from 56% to 75% between 1990 and 2010, despite a decrease between 1995 and 2001 because of interference from armed conflict (13).

Yet education is one of the most effective instruments of sustainable human development, as it boosts the confidence of people, enabling them to find better jobs, to engage in public debate, and to demand from the government health rights, social security, and others.

Education also has profound health benefits and a positive effect on mortality. The research by UNDP showed that the level of a mother’s education is more important for the survival of her child as it can contribute to household income or wealth and that policy interventions have a significant impact where school performance is initially lower.

The real GDP (that is, adjusted for inflation) per capita, calculated based on purchasing power parity, by providing the same amount of purchasing power to all, is 319 according to the UNDP data. The difficult issue is the assessment of the richness of human life, especially freedoms that human beings rightly perceive and other important parts that are easier to track, such as income and other external resources that individuals or nations possess.

GDP is much easier to observe to measure the quality of people’s lives. However, well-being and freedom, and possession of equity and justice, cannot simply be reduced to the amount of GDP and its growth rate as many people are trying to do.

II.2. Sustainable human development and the future generation

Human development cannot remain indifferent to future generations just because they are not here yet, but humans have the ability to think about others, and the media and politicians should broaden the dialogue of highly personal concern for the general social understanding of the importance of needs and freedoms of individuals as in the future as today.

Moreover, the search for coherence between human needs and the long-term resources and the environment appears as an essential inheritance to pass on to the future, where the gains are subject to