Social Influence Strategies for Environmental Behavior Change: Second Edition

SOCIAL INFLUENCE STRATEGIES

FOR

ENVIRONMENTAL

BEHAVIOR CHANGE

SECOND EDITION

BEN TYSON

SOCIAL INFLUENCE STRATEGIES FOR

ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOR CHANGE

SECOND EDITION

Copyright © 2018 Ben Tyson.

Author Credits: Cornelius Benjamin Tyson

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced by any means, graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or by any information storage retrieval system without the written permission of the author except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews.

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ISBN: 978-1-5320-5631-4 (sc)

ISBN: 978-1-5320-5632-1 (e)

iUniverse rev. date: 08/22/2018

Authors note

This book continues to be a work in progress that evolves with my own continued learning about planning and evaluating communication campaigns for changing environmental behaviors – campaigns that involve various social influence strategies for accomplishing change at the individual, community and societal levels. Three related books that I previously published (listed below) serve as the foundation for this text. They are now out of print. There is a significant amount of new material in this book, but it should be noted that there is also a fair amount of content common to all four.

Tyson, B. (2013). Social Influence Strategies for Environmental Behavior Change. IUniverse Publishers, Bloomington, Indiana.

Tyson, Ben with Mercedes Hurd (2009). Social Marketing Environmental Issues. I-Universe Publishers, Bloomington, Indiana.

Tyson, C. B. (2003). Strategic Environmental Communication: Communicating Strategies for Influencing Environmental Behaviors. XanEdu Publishing; Ann Arbor, Michigan.

CONTENTS

PREFACE

CHAPTER 1—STRATEGIES FOR INFLUENCING ENVIRONMENTAL

BEHAVIORS

•   A Model for Determining Strategy Selection

•   Conclusion

CHAPTER 2—EDUCATION STRATEGIES

•   Introduction

•   Formal Environmental Education

o   Formal Education Strategies

•   Non-formal Environmental Education

o   Extension Education

o   Parks, Zoos/Aquaria, Museums, Environmental Organizations, And Nature Centers

CHAPTER 3—PERSUASIVE/SOCIAL MARKETING STRATEGIES

•   A Model for Designing Social Marketing Campaigns

•   Campaign Planning

o   Defining Issues and Campaign Objectives

o   The Target Audience

o   Campaign Messages

o   Communication Channels

o   Sources And Strategic Partners

•   Conclusion

CHAPTER 4—THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF PERSUASION

•   Introduction

•   Variables Affecting Behavior Change

•   Variables Affecting Environmental Behaviors

o   Perceived Threat

o   Anticipated Consequences

o   Personal Norm

o   Social Norm

o   Self-Efficacy

o   Community Efficacy

o   Community Cohesiveness/Community Interaction

•   Message Based Persuasion

•   Diffusion of Innovations

o   Attributes Of The Behavior

o   Adopter Groups

o   Stages Of Adoption

•   Sense of Place Theory

•   Conclusion

CHAPTER 5—MARKET/INCENTIVE STRATEGIES

•   Introduction

•   Solutions to Social Dilemmas

•   Efficacy of Reinforcement Strategies

•   Market Based Reinforcement

•   Innovative Incentive Strategies

o   The Nature Conservancy

o   Tradeable Emission Quotas

•   Conclusion

CHAPTER 6—DIALOGIC/PARTICIPATORY STRATEGIES

•   Introduction

•   Pseudo versus Genuine Participation

•   Dialogic/Participatory Communication

•   Case Study: A Rural Application of the Sustainable Brownfields Redevelopment Process

•   Collaborative Learning

•   Conclusion

CHAPTER 7—RESEARCH METHODS FOR CAMPAIGN PLANNING

•   Introduction

•   Research Methods

o   Archival Research Methods

o   Qualitative Research Methods

■   Interviews in an unstructured setting

■   Focus groups

■   Interviews in a structured setting

■   Intercept interviews

■   Phone interviews

■   Face-to-face interviews

o   Quantitative Research Methods (Surveys)

o   Sampling

o   Data Entry And Analysis

•   Appendix 1 How to Conduct a Focus Group

•   Appendix 2 The Interviewing Process

•   Appendix 3 Designing Questionnaires

CHAPTER 8—ISSUES WITH CAMPAIGN EVALUATION

•   Introduction

•   Philosophy of Program Evaluation

•   Challenges to Evaluating Communication Campaigns

•   Conclusion

CHAPTER 9—RESEARCH METHODS FOR CAMPAIGN MONITORING AND EVALUATION

•   Introduction

•   Research Methods

o   Monitoring

o   Final Evaluation

■   Process Evaluation

■   Outcome evaluation

■   Alternative Outcome Evaluation Strategies

•   Planning, Implementing and Utilizing Results of an Evaluation Program

CHAPTER 10—PROJECT MANAGEMENT

•   Introduction

•   Pre-project activities

o   Develop Project Identity

o   Develop Management Systems

o   Identify And Enlist Key Partners And/Or Organization Members

o   Develop Outreach Tools

o   Develop A Monitoring And Evaluation Strategy

o   Develop A Pert Chart

•   Implementing and Monitoring the Project

•   Evaluating the Communication Campaign

CHAPTER 11—CASE STUDY: THE EIGHT MILE RIVER WATERSHED PROJECT

•   Introduction

•   The Eight Mile River Watershed

•   Planning the Communication Campaign

o   Define Objectives

o   Define Audiences

o   Define Messages

o O   Define Communication Channels

o   Define Information Sources

•   Implementing the Communication Campaign

o   Stage 1: Pre-Campaign Activities

o   Stage 2: Informational Objectives

o   Stage 3: Attitude Change/Motivation

o   Stage 4: Seek Assistance/Behavior Change

•   Evaluating the Communication Campaign

o   Process Evaluation

o   Qualitative Assessment Of Project Planning And Implementation

o   Evaluation Of Communication Channels Used In Project

o   Quantitative Assessment Of The Communication/Education Tools And Events

o   Conclusion – Process Evaluation

•   Outcome Evaluation

o   Survey Methods

o   Limitations

o   Analysis

o   Conclusion – Outcome Evaluation

•   Appendix 1: Eight Mile River Watershed Project

Process Evaluation Questionnaire

•   Appendix 2: Eight Mile River Watershed Landowner

Baseline Survey

•   Appendix 3: Eight Mile River Watershed Landowner

Final Evaluation Survey

CHAPTER 12—CASE STUDIES FROM NEW ZEALAND

•   Case Study 1: Facilitating Collaborative Efforts to Redesign Community Managed Water Systems

•   Case Study 2: Engaging Dairy Farmers to Improve Water Quality in the Aorere Catchment of New Zealand

•   Case Study 3: Predictors of Success for Community-

Driven Water Quality Management: Lessons from

Three Catchments in New Zealand

REFERENCES

PREFACE

The root cause of many environmental problems is human behavior. Hence, knowing how to induce changes in environmental practices is often the key to solving many of the environmental problems we face today. Conceptualizing the issue as a behavioral problem is often not the initial tendency of individuals whose work focuses on solving environmental problems (e.g., communication specialists, educators, engineers, scientists). Communication specialists frequently attempt to heighten awareness and interest in issues through mass media. Educators often believe new knowledge and skills need to be acquired. Engineers and scientists often focus on technical solutions. Our training often dictates the way we conceptualize solutions to the problems we face. All these conceptualizations are valid and in concert can be an effective way to change environmental practices.

During the 1980s and 90s, I worked on several environmental projects in the U.S., the West Indies and southern Africa in the role of classroom teacher, extension educator, and media specialist. The stated aim of these projects was to increase awareness, interest, knowledge and/or skills. The implication was that these changes would result in better practices and that these new practices would result in a better environment; i.e., that if someone were to become more aware, interested, knowledgeable or skilled than this would affect how they behaved. The projects were all fairly successful at increasing their stated aim, but only mildly successful in bringing about permanent changes in the behaviors that were actually needed (the unstated objective). The environmental impacts that were sought were therefore only marginally achieved.

It became clear that though people may obtain requisite levels of awareness, interest, knowledge and/or skills, they still may not change their behaviors in-line with these factors. Many barriers can intervene (e.g., perceived costs may exceed benefits, opposing norms may inhibit change, confidence may be lacking, required resources may not be available). It became clear that behavior change is what was actually sought. This realization came in the 1990s at about the same time that many health communication specialists around the world were realizing high levels of success in changing behaviors associated with disease prevention and family planning. Behavior change was their stated goal and the strategy they used was termed social marketing. The strategy involved building a foundation of awareness, interest, knowledge/skills while minimizing barriers and optimizing benefits, norms, and confidence. This realization led me to pursue doctoral study focusing on environmental social marketing. Since the mid-1990s, I have played key roles in the design, implementation and evaluation of several environmental social marketing campaigns in various countries and have found that the behavior changes that were sought were much more apt to be met using social marketing strategies rather than the educational strategies that I had been previously relied upon.

In more recent years, especially via my work in New Zealand, I have come to realize that social marketing is just one more tool in a tool box of social influence strategies to be used to affect environmental behavior change. It is apparent that many environmental problems, especially those tied to the profitability of commercial enterprises (e.g., nutrient pollution or siltation from farming, carbon loading from industry), need more than awareness, knowledge, skills and persuasive messages or social pressure to precipitate changes in behaviors. In the past decade, innovative market/incentive reinforcement strategies (e.g., carbon trading, nitrogen trading, conservation deed restrictions, and tradeoffs that lower costs by providing targeted financial incentives) have been used in conjunction with social marketing strategies to get audiences to more willingly adopt new behaviors.

In addition, in retrospect, I have come to realize that asymmetrical communication, where the onus of responsibility to plan the educational program, social marketing campaign, or market/incentive-based intervention rests with the individual/agency charged with implementing the effort, does not always lead to sustained results. Asymmetrical models may work well for acute issues that need a firm hand and a quick fix, but for long-term sustained solutions it is better to have more symmetrical communication where all stakeholders that are affected by the issue openly participate in program planning, implementation and evaluation.

The purpose of the book is to provide an applied, practical, yet theoretically grounded, reference on social influence strategies for changing environmental behaviors. The book is intended to be used as a professional reference by practitioners in governmental and nongovernmental organizations worldwide. The book is also intended to be used as a text by students of environmental science, environmental communication and environmental education.

Chapter 1 provides context for selecting when the various social influence strategies are best used. Chapter 2 discusses the basic principles and theoretical foundations of education strategies. Chapter 3 and 4 discusses the basic principles and theoretical foundations of persuasive/social marketing strategies. Chapter 5 discusses the basic principles and theoretical foundations of market/incentive reinforcement strategies. Chapter 6 discusses the basic principles and theoretical foundations of dialogic/participatory strategies. Chapter 7 provides details about the research methods used to plan campaigns for changing environmental behaviors. Chapter 8 and 9 discusses issues and methods associated with monitoring and evaluating environmental communication campaigns. Chapter 10 provides tips on how to manage a project for environmental behavior change. Chapters 11 and 12 provide case studies that illustrates the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of campaigns that aim to change environmental practices that employ many of the strategies discussed in this book. Sidebars are used throughout the book to illustrate issues that are discussed. The Appendices in Chapters 7 provide how-to guidance on conducting research. The Appendices in Chapter 11 provide templates for questionnaires that can be used to collect information helpful for designing, monitoring and evaluating environmental communication campaigns.

CHAPTER 1

STRATEGIES FOR INFLUENCING ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIORS

A Model for Determining Strategy Selection

How do advocates for the environment best fulfill their objectives when their objectives require people to change their behavior? The criteria used to select environmental behavior change strategies are unique when compared to other behavior change strategies (e.g., consumer behavior, health behavior) because environmental issues often generate high amounts of controversy. The public is often conflicted by what is in their economic versus environmental and short-term versus long-term best interest. Economic and environmental issues often seem polarized. In addition, the validity and reliability of the science underlying many environmental issues often may seem tentative at times.

Questions can be raised about the assumptions scientists make during their investigations (see associated sidebar). The rationale behind their findings can be challenged. Scientists know this and harness the controversy by using a peer review process to validate their conclusions. But the public can be confused by the complexities and ambiguities of the process and controversy that is reported in the media (see associated sidebar). Hence, it is often difficult for advocates to choose when educational, persuasive/social marketing, market/incentive, or community based dialogic/participatory strategies are most appropriate.

According to Focht (1995), environmental issues can be assessed in terms of the degree that a) the scientific community and b) the general public agree amongst themselves about the cause/effect and solutions to an issue. Focht separates environmental issues into four categories.

• High scientific and high social consensus (e.g., the need to prevent excessive nutrients from polluting a lake).

• Low scientific and low social consensus (e.g., planning for the equitable distribution of a limited water supply).

• High scientific and low social consensus (e.g., the need to manage private forest land to protect wildlife).

• Low scientific but high social consensus (e.g., the choice of paper versus plastic when choosing disposable grocery bags).

Focht (1995) posits that under conditions of high scientific and high social consensus, environmental communication can ethically mandate a reinforcement-based course of action (i.e., market/incentives strategies or laws). Under conditions of low scientific consensus and low social consensus, he suggests that dialogic/participatory communication strategies ought to be followed in which there are few preconceived outcomes (i.e., community stakeholders discuss issues until they can agree on a course of action). Under conditions of high scientific consensus but low social consensus, he believes communication could be either educational and/or persuasive to encourage action consistent with scientific knowledge. Lastly, under conditions of low scientific consensus and high social consensus, any communication that might take place would be fairly subjective and ideological and subject to questionable credibility. The first three scenarios (reinforcement, education/persuasive, dialogic/participatory) pertain to more objective/credible forms of social influence and will be addressed in this book; the later scenario (ideological) will not.

Focht’s thesis is interesting and potentially helpful. Yet, a key question remains unanswered: what constitutes high and low consensus? True consensus where all parties agree is probably an unrealistic goal given the controversial nature of many environmental issues. There will always be factions of people that disagree. This raises the question: how much of the public or the scientific community must agree on an issue for there to be a clear path of action?

There is probably no definitive answer to this question. As a general rule though, it may be helpful to envision an assessment of consensus on a continuum ranging from low to high - the closer to the poles the assessment is, the more definitive the choice of communication strategy can be. But as the assessment approaches the scale mid-point, the choice of communication strategy will become less clear and the final decision will undoubtedly be based more on intuition than logic.

Questioning Science

Questions can be raised about the assumptions scientists make during their investigations. A good illustration of this was displayed in a National Public Radio broadcast entitled The Economy and Emissions (Baron, Siegel & Wertheimer, 1996). Three economists from the Economic Strategy Institute (conservative), the Department of Energy (moderate), and Harvard University (liberal) once debated the potential impacts of a potential treaty to prevent climate change. The trend in their responses was predictable. When asked about the effects on GDP, responses ranged from 2.5 to 3.0 percent below what it would be without the treaty (conservative), to no impact (moderate), to a gain of .69 percent (liberal). When asked about the effects on employment, responses ranged from a 1.8 million job loss, to no net gain, to an increase of 1.2 percent. When asked about the effects on gasoline prices, responses ranged from an increase of 50 cents per gallon, to 6 to 12 cents per gallon, to about five cents. The models these economists use to make their predictions depend on the assumptions they build into them initially. For instance, regarding the issue of technological change, many studies assume companies will develop new, energy-efficient cars, appliances, and power plants at a steady rate. Other models assume the rate of innovation will accelerate.

Controversial Science

The public can be confused by the complexities and ambiguities of the scientific process and the associated controversy that is reported in popular media. An example of how scientific findings can be controversial is evident in bestselling author Michael Crichton’s novel State of Fear (Crichton, 2005). In this novel he blends fiction with what he claims are scientific facts – facts he shared in congressional testimony and several public speeches (Crichton, 2003). Both Crichton’s fiction and nonfiction claim that environmental advocates base their opinions on unfoundedreligious-like myths and that their beliefs about global warming are overemotional, unfounded and need to be better supported by objective science.

In a Hartford Courant editorial (Thorson, 2005), Professor of Geography, Dr. Robert Thorson, criticized Crichton for blurring the link between his fiction and nonfiction and doing what he considered a public disservice by minimizing the threat of global warming in his novel. In addition, a special report in Rolling Stone that same year stated that the novel has been roundly discredited by the scientific community and named Crichton one of the top six public misleaders of science in this regard (Little, 2005).

Conclusion

Focht’s thesis is potentially helpful. His thoughts on using market/incentive reinforcement strategies when there is little controversy makes sense (i.e., when there is high scientific and high public consensus). Though as discussed in Chapter 5, these strategies are usually cost and/or labor intensive and may not lead to permanent behavior change. His thoughts on using dialogic/participatory communication strategies when there is considerable controversy makes sense too (i.e., when there is low scientific and low public consensus). Though as discussed in Chapter 6, dialogic/participatory strategies may take considerable time to implement.

Yet, Focht’s thesis has a weakness in that it does not provide specific guidance on how to choose when educational versus persuasive strategies are called for in the face of high scientific and low social consensus. These are important and frequently used strategies by environmental advocates. Focht could strengthen his thesis by adopting what Archie, Mann and Smith (1993) said about educational strategies being suitable when issues are not immediate or acute and when the ability to think critically is the goal; and persuasive/social marketing strategies being useful when issues are believed to be more immediate and relatively quick targeted behavior change is the goal.

CHAPTER 2

EDUCATION STRATEGIES

Introduction

Focht (1995) posits that educational and persuasive strategies may be well suited when there is high scientific consensus but low social consensus surrounding environmental issues. Educational strategies play out in both formal and non-formal education settings and in general are designed to promote changes in awareness, knowledge, and skills. Formal environmental education often follows a standardized curriculum organized by an educator and presented in a classroom setting (although many educators find ways to include experiences outside of the classroom). Non-formal education includes a) extension education carried out by technical specialists and volunteers associated with Cooperative Extension Systems typically based at universities and b) learning activities at state/national parks, zoos/aquariums and other types of nature centers. It is not uncommon for formal education teachers to invite non-formal educators into their classrooms to help with student instruction.

According to Archie, Mann and Smith (1993), educational approaches equip audiences with the background needed to make informed decisions about their own choice of behavior. The goal is to build capacity and commitment to engage in problem-solving and decision-making to assure environmental quality. The audience is usually a significant portion of the population. Outcomes may include environmental sensitivity and changes in knowledge and skills. The time frame is generally long-term because of the emphasis on broad changes across an extensive social framework. A wide range of issues lend themselves to this strategy, particularly those that are not immediate or acute.

Formal Environmental Education

As stated, formal environmental education often follows a standardized curriculum organized by an educator and presented in a classroom setting. It involves the training and development of students’ knowledge, skills and character in structured and certified programs that take place in schools. It is important to understand that formal education is not about changing behaviors; it is about providing information so that individuals can decide what they want to believe and how they want to act.

According to Monroe, Andrews and Biedenweg (2007), formal environmental education has two goals:

• To foster clear awareness of, and concern about, economic, social, political, and ecological interdependence in urban and rural areas.

• To provide every person with opportunities to acquire the knowledge, values, attitudes, commitment and skills needed to protect and improve the environment.

FORMAL EDUCATION STRATEGIES

According to Monroe, Day and Grieser (2000), formal environmental education teaches students how to think not what to think. Thus, the goal of environmental educators is to help learners form the capacity to collect and analyze information, make good judgments, and participate fully in civic life. Monroe, Andrews and Biedenweg (2007) define the following four objectives of environmental education: convey information, build understanding, improve skills, and enable sustainable actions.

Convey Information

One objective of formal environmental education is to convey information to students. It is important that educators use an unbiased approach when teaching students. The most common methods for conveying information are through lectures, textbooks, videos and field trips. Other methods include invited presentations done by non-formal environmental educators. The outcome is for students to be able to think for themselves and manage their behaviors on their own as they see fit. The hope is that providing students with knowledge on topics will spark an interest and help them build their own understanding of the environment. It is hoped that getting students interested in caring for the environment at a young age will encourage them to continue this as they get older.

Build Understanding

A second objective of formal environmental education according to Monroe, Andrews and Biedenweg (2007) is to build better understanding of issues. This is best accomplished by facilitating interaction among students and educators. In the previous objective all the work was done by the educator. Fulfilling this second objective requires students to be an active part of the learning process. This often includes field work done by students. Monroe, Andrews and Biedenweg (2007) provide other examples of what an educator can do to collaboratively build understanding.

• Discussion

• Role play

• Simulation

• Case study

• Experiment

• Game

• Constructivist methods

• Experiential learning

Improve Skills

A third objective of formal environmental education is to improve skills. This requires an educator to provide various skill building activities. Students need to be able to ask questions if they do not fully understand how to do things. An example might be showing a young child how to separate recyclables and providing the student who recycles the most with an environmental citizenship award. Older students may be asked to engage in community service projects.

Enable Sustainable Actions

The forth objective of formal environmental education is to help students take action if they chose to. Once a student has fulfilled the previous three objectives they should be able to decide if they want to act on this knowledge/skill or not. By this time the educator has done everything they can to educate the student, show the student examples, and walk them through action steps. The final objective is for the student to choose their own long-term direction. The educator should continue to answer questions and provide guidance as needed.

Project Learning Tree – Formal Education

The American Forest Foundation has created the best known formal environmental education program in the U.S. called Project Learning Tree (PLT). It is a standardized curriculum used by educators in the classroom to teach about environmental issues. An integral part of PLT is bringing the classroom into the forest and making learning an experience. The curriculum is broken down into early childhood, elementary/middle school, and secondary school units. The program requires educators that are interested in using program materials to attend workshops and receive training in how to use them. Non-formal environmental educators are often charged with delivering this training. PLT is available in all 50 states in the United States and there are now over 500,000 educators using these resources (Connecticut Forest & Park Association, n.d.).

Early Childhood Curriculum

PLT believes that it is essential to start teaching children at a young age. Teaching methods used at this stage include learning about color and sound; e.g.,