Contents

Origins

Houses and Housing

St Mark’s Road Housing Jeremy and Fenella Dixon

Thematic House Charles Jencks with Terry Farrell Partnership

Greenbank House James Gowan with Antony MacIntyre

16–20 Church Crescent Colquhoun & Miller

Hillrise Road housing LB Islington Architect’s Department

Architect’s own house Richard Pierce

Shadwell Basin housing MacCormac Jamieson Prichard & Wright

Mercers’ House John Melvin & Partners

Landscapes

Little Sparta Ian Hamilton Finlay

Garden of Cosmic Speculation Charles Jencks and Maggie Keswick

Civic Buildings

Katharine Stephen Room Joanna van Heyningen and Birkin Haward

Pencadlys Cyngor Gwynedd (County Hall) Merfyn H Roberts and Terry Potter with Dewi-Prys Thomas

Richmond House Whitfield Associates

Epping Forest Civic Offices Richard Reid

Bishop Wilson Memorial Library Colin St John Wilson & Partners

National Gallery Extension Venturi, Scott Brown & Associates

Church of St Paul Peter Jenkins of Peter Inskip & Peter Jenkins

National Museum of Scotland Benson & Forsyth

Commercial Buildings

NFU Mutual HQ Robert Matthew, Johnson-Marshall & Partners (Alan Crawshaw, partner in charge)

Legal and General House Arup Associates

Horselydown Square Julyan Wickham and Associates

Marco Polo House Ian Pollard

Homebase Ian Pollard

Italian Centre Page & Park

Minster Court GMW Partnership

Three Brindleyplace Demetri Porphyrios

James Stirling

Neue Staatsgalerie

Arthur M. Sackler Museum

Clore Gallery

Berlin Social Science Centre (WZB)

Electa Bookshop

1 Poultry

Terry Farrell

TV-am studios

Thames Water Authority Operations Centre

Comyn Ching

Henley Royal Regatta Headquarters

Embankment Place

Alban Gate

SIS Building

CZWG

Phillips West 2

Janet Street-Porter House

Craft Design and Technology Building

China Wharf

The Circle

Cascades

200–260 Aztec West

Westbourne Grove Public Conveniences

John Outram

McKay Securities

New House

Harp Heating

1200 Park Avenue

Isle of Dogs Pumping Station

Judge Business School

Sphinx Hill

East Workshops

Legacy

Queen’s Building Short Ford & Associates

Avenue de Chartres Car Park Birds Portchmouth Russum

Geffrye Museum Extension Branson Coates

Blue House FAT

Islington Square FAT 218

Hypocaust Pavilion muf architecture/art

Sunshine Children’s Centre Featherstone Young

Fullwell Cross Interventions DK-CM

The Green AOC

Notes

Further Reading

Index

Acknowledgements

Picture Credits

Charles Moore’s Piazza d’Italia in New Orleans, built 1975–9

By the 1970s there was a widespread sense of a crisis in modernism. The high-tech of Richard Rogers and Norman Foster, new materials such as plastics and principles of sustainable architecture all offered a way out. The decade also witnessed a revived use of brick that led to explorations into neo-vernacular, Arts and Crafts traditions, classicism and conservation. Out of this disorder one trend weaved elements of old and new, not into a consistent idiom but into an eclectic architecture that was, at its best, individual and adventurous.

Post-modernism in architecture is characterized by its plurality, engagement with urban context and setting, reference to older architectural traditions and use of metaphors and symbols to suggest several ideas at once. Its unexpected exaggerations and distortions of conventional proportions suggest links to the mannerism of the late Renaissance, while unusual delineations of space have been likened to the 17th-century Baroque style. These traits were beginning to appear by 1977 when Charles Jencks, an American critic and historian based in London, published The Language of Post-Modern Architecture.

Post-modern architecture can be defined by its relationship with modernism. On one level it was a reaction to the excesses and broken promises of the modernist establishment. Charles Jencks claimed the dynamiting of part of the Pruitt–Igoe housing project in St Louis, Missouri, in 1972 as the death of modern architecture. But in truth, each post-modernist had their own Pruitt–Igoe moment. Reactions varied; some reformed and enriched modernism from within, widening its scope through historical or regional connections. Others felt that the original aspirations of modernism could only be realized through alternative strategies.

Like all stylistic labels the term ‘post-modernism’ is overused, but it has more value than most, with the supreme advantage of being contemporary rather than retrospectively applied by historians. Outside architecture, it relates to movements in other arts, literature and philosophy. The term is an old one, used in painting in the 1880s, literature from the 1930s and popular fiction from the early 1960s.¹ Joseph Hudnut applied it to buildings in 1949 in his 1945 article on ‘The Post-Modern House’², a criticism of the mechanized architecture he had taught at the Bauhaus.³ Nikolaus Pevsner called ‘post-modern’ the architecture he considered ‘the legitimate style of the nineteen-fifties and nineteen-sixties’ – the refined modernism of architects such as Arne Jacobsen or Powell and Moya – when in 1966 he attacked the brutalists or ‘anti-pioneers’.⁴

From 1975 the strands were brought together by Charles Jencks, a figure who has become more closely identified with post-modernism in architecture than any other, and who defined it in terms of a ‘double-coded language – one part modern and one part something else’.⁶ C Ray Smith had used the alternative ‘supermannerism’ in a series of late-1960s articles gathered into a 1977 book of that name.⁷ In the early work of Robert Venturi and especially Charles Moore, Smith identified the layering or separation of elements, the use of cut-out shapes and over-scaled lettering – termed ‘supergraphics’ – and references to aspects of mass culture, such as comic books. In 1977, the architect Robert A M Stern used the term in the manner that has become universal:

Post-modernism recognizes that buildings are designed to mean something, that they are not hermetically sealed objects. Post-modernism accepts diversity; it prefers hybrids to pure forms; it encourages multiple and simultaneous readings in its effort to heighten expressive content. Borrowing from forms and strategies of both modernism and the architecture that preceded it, post-modernism declares the pastness of both. The layering of space characteristic of much post-modernist architecture finds its complement in the overlay of cultural and art-historical references in the elevations. For the post-modernist, ‘more is more’. ⁵

The most distinctive strand of post-modern architecture originated in the United States. Louis Kahn provides an important bridge between modernists and post-modernists in offering a common source of inspiration, and his emphasis on separating the service areas that supported the functioning of a building greatly informed Richard Rogers and the high-tech movement. In the 1960s Kahn adopted increasingly bold geometric shapes and a monumentality that fused modern and ancient traditions. His teaching assistant at the University of Philadelphia, Robert Venturi, flattened and stacked these geometries, introducing diagonal movement into the plan, as Kahn had done. The latter’s Esherick House in Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia (1961) exudes the universal qualities of strength and formality whereas, at the end of the same street, Venturi’s house designed for his mother (the Vanna Venturi house, 1959–64) offers a series of layered skins, with symmetrical elements countered by informalities and idiosyncrasies and its show front split open to reveal a monumental chimney, a take on a settlers’ vernacular.

Vanna Venturi House, designed by Robert Venturi for his mother from 1959, built 1962–4

Two years later, in 1966, Venturi published Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture, a study of architecture that focused heavily on the Baroque era but which also embraced Alvar Aalto and Edwin Lutyens. A paperback second edition appeared in 1977. He suggested how ‘an artful discord gives vitality to architecture’ and a richer experience in urban design. The sources of stateside post-modernism ranged from the colonial classicism and flat, boarded Shingle style of the New England school of architects to the Bauhaus, Art Deco and Pop Art. Yet although modernism and post-modernism shared connections with Kahn, Gunnar Asplund and the Italian rationalists of the 1930s, battle lines soon developed within the American avant-garde, for example between the ‘white’ post-Corbusians (led by Peter Eisenman) and the ‘grays’ (Romaldo Giurgola, Allan Greenberg, Charles Moore, Jaquelin T Robertson and Robert Stern) whose one-off private houses were – like Venturi’s – less pristine as images but suggested a greater richness and ambiguity in their symbols and layered historical references.

When Denise Scott Brown took a teaching job in Los Angeles she invited her future husband, Robert Venturi, to join her in a research programme in Las Vegas. Venturi had already written on the value of ‘honky-tonk elements in the landscape’ but his, Denise Scott Brown and Steven Izenour’s Learning from Las Vegas, published in 1972, further challenged the boundaries between the high art of the academy and the low art of small-town America. Venturi’s Complexity and Contradiction had criticized the ideas of another Louis Kahn follower, Peter Blake, whose God’s Own Junkyard in 1964 had derided the kitsch of Long Island’s Big Duck, a farmer’s market of 1930 in the form of a giant, walk-in duck.⁸ The collaborators contrasted the duck building, which for them suggested the modernist integration of structure, space and programme into a single, symbolic object, with the ubiquitous clapboard shed signified only by an applied façade or a roadside sign.

Venturi, Scott Brown and Izenour’s acceptance of the ordinary and the everyday found parallels in the recognition of older buildings and thence the retention of characterful but unexceptional stretches of traditional Main Street. Jane Jacobs had argued against their wholesale replacement, asserting that town centres needed buildings of different ages and rents if they were to have a visual and economic diversity, her book The Death and Life of Great American Cities in 1961 marking the beginnings of the conservation movement. Stuart Cohen and Colin Rowe described architecture and urban design as a collage of shapes and ideas, and in ‘Collage City’, an article that led in 1978 to an eponymous book with Fred Koetter, the English-born Rowe argued for urban design based on fragmentation, ‘bricolage’ and a variety of meanings to secure this diversity.

Charles Moore was another former teaching assistant to Louis Kahn, and his 1961 house in Orinda, California shares references to temples and Roman domestic architecture with Kahn’s bath house at Trenton, New Jersey. After becoming Dean of the Yale School of Architecture, Moore transformed a small 19th-century house in 1966–7 with light shafts, over-scaled geometrical cut-outs, bright colours and supergraphics. The same elements brought irony to the collegiate setting of the Faculty Club at the University of California, Santa Barbara of 1967–8. Moore’s idea of an inclusive and diverse architecture manifested itself in a public square celebrating New Orleans’s small Italian community, the Piazza d’Italia of 1975–9. He placed colonnades and a bell tower resembling theatrical sets around a fountain designed as a three-dimensional map of Italy, their capitals serving as uplighters and trimmed in neon, while water spurted from medallions modelled on Moore’s own face.

In Italy, architects championed a different form of post-modernism, seeking not to add to modernism but to strip classicism back to its essence, without the obsession for details found among traditionalists. For Paolo Portoghesi, post-modernism was about the re-emergence of archetypes and conventions, a means of communication or ‘civilisation of the image’.⁹ He combined an architectural practice based in Rome with a study of architectural history, in particular the work of Francesco Borromini, a leading figure in the emergence of the Baroque architectural style. Portoghesi’s own work combined historic references and flowing space, as in his mosque and Islamic centre in Rome of 1975–6, light and uplifting if very Western in its inspiration. In Milan, Ernesto Rogers had referenced early Gothic symbols in his Torre Velasca as early as 1958.

Rogers’s pupil Aldo Rossi argued that the historical city offered a vocabulary of types along with a grammar for their combination. Published at a time of unprecedented urban reconstruction, his 1966 book Architettura della Città suggested that modern architecture might learn from the collective and communal values of the city, the continuity of its fabric and its compound of anonymity and monumentality. In 1971, while recovering from serious injury after a car crash, Rossi designed an extension to the San Cataldo Cemetery at Modena, an enigmatic assembly of forms dominated by a cubic, ochre-rendered ossuary. This roofless house of the dead offers a poetic metaphor for Rossi’s description of the city as a repository of collective memory.

Rossi, Massimo Scolari and others organized the international architecture exhibition at the Milan Triennale in 1973, later published as Architettura Razionale. Others associated with the movement termed La Tendenza or, more often, neo-rationalism included Carlo Aymonino, Giorgio Grassi and Vittorio Gregotti in Italy; Josef Paul Kleihues and Oswald Mathias Ungers in Germany, and Bruno Reichlin and Fabio Reinhardt in Switzerland. Léon Krier, Maurice Culot and Demetri Porphyrios pursued a form of neo-rationalism more closely allied to a revival of the classical orders. In 1975 Krier organized his own ‘Rational Architecture’ exhibition at the Art Net gallery in London as a corrective to Rossi’s; it featured his own schemes alongside works by Scolari, Grassi, Ungers and his former employer, James Stirling. In the Italian-speaking Ticino canton of Switzerland, a fast-growing economy and a local school of architecture generated a distinctive architecture that combined stark volumes of brick and stone with classical references. At Mario Botta’s Bianchi House at Riva San Vitale (1972–3), the Danilo House at Ligornetto (1975–6) and the Medici House at Stabio (1980–2) voids are carved out of solid cubes and cylinders. In later and larger works an affinity with the brick geometries of Louis Kahn is even more apparent.

The Austrian architect Hans Hollein provides a link between Europe and America, having studied, and later taught, in the United States. His early works, such as the Retti candle shop (1965), the Schullin I jewellery store (1974) and two offices of the Austrian Travel Agency (1978) –